The mouse anion exchanger AE2/SLC4A2 Cl–/HCO–3 exchanger is essential to post-weaning life. AE2 polypeptides regulate pHi, chloride concentration, cell volume, and transepithelial ion transport in many tissues. Although the AE2a isoform has been extensively studied, the function and regulation of the other AE2 N-terminal variant mRNAs of mouse (AE2b1, AE2b2, AE2c1, and AE2c2) have not been examined. We now present an extended analysis of AE2 variant mRNA tissue distribution and function. We show in Xenopus oocytes that all AE2 variant polypeptides except AE2c2 mediated Cl– transport are subject to inhibition by acidic pHi and to activation by hypertonicity and NH+4. However, AE2c1 differs from AE2a, AE2b1, and AE2b2 in its alkaline-shifted pHo(50) (7.70 ± 0.11 versus 6.80 ± 0.05), suggesting the presence of a novel AE2a pH-sensitive regulatory site between amino acids 99 and 198. Initial N-terminal deletion mutagenesis restricted this site to the region between amino acids 120 and 150. Further analysis identified AE2a residues 127–129, 130–134, and 145–149 as jointly responsible for the difference in pHo(50) between AE2c1 and the longer AE2a, AE2b1, and AE2b2 polypeptides. Thus, AE2c1 exhibits a unique pHo sensitivity among the murine AE2 variant polypeptides, in addition to a unique tissue distribution. Physiological coexpression of AE2c1 with other AE2 variant polypeptides in the same cell should extend the range over which changing pHo can regulate AE2 transport activity.

The shark liver antimicrobial polyaminosterol squalamine is an angiogenesis inhibitor under clinical investigation as an anti-cancer agent and as a treatment for the choroidal neovascularization associated with macular degeneration of the retina. The related polyaminosterol MSI-1436 is an appetite suppressant that decreases systemic insulin resistance. However, the mechanisms of action of these polyaminosterols are unknown. We report effects of MSI-1436 on Xenopus oocytes consistent with the existence of a receptor for polyaminosterols. MSI-1436 activates bidirectional, trans-chloride-independent Cl- flux in Xenopus oocytes. At least part of this DIDS-sensitive Cl- flux is conductive, as measured using two-electrode voltage-clamp and on-cell patch-clamp techniques. MSI-1436 also elevates cytosolic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]) and increases bidirectional 45Ca2+ flux. Activation of Cl- flux and elevation of cytosolic [Ca2+] by MSI-1436 both are accelerated by lowering bath Ca2+ and are not acutely inhibited by extracellular EGTA. Elevation of cytosolic [Ca2+] by MSI-1436 requires heparin-sensitive intracellular Ca2+ stores. Although injected EGTA abolishes the increased conductive Cl- flux, that Cl- flux is not dependent on heparin-sensitive stores. In low-bath Ca2+ conditions, several structurally related polyaminosterols act as strong agonists or weak agonists of conductive Cl- flux in oocytes. Weak agonist polyaminosterols antagonize the strong agonist, MSI-1436, but upon addition of the conductive Cl- transport inhibitor DIDS, they are converted into strong agonists. Together, these properties operationally define a polyaminosterol receptor at or near the surface of the Xenopus oocyte, provide an initial description of receptor signaling, and suggest routes toward further understanding of a novel class of appetite suppressants and angiogenesis inhibitors.

The unusually low 78% amino acid identity between the orthologous human SLC26A6 and mouse slc26a6 polypeptides prompted systematic comparison of their anion transport functions in Xenopus oocytes. Multiple human SLC26A6 variant polypeptides were also functionally compared. Transport was studied as unidirectional fluxes of 36Cl-, [14C]oxalate, and [35S]sulfate; as net fluxes of HCO3− by fluorescence ratio measurement of intracellular pH; as current by two-electrode voltage clamp; and as net Cl- flux by fluorescence intensity measurement of relative changes in extracellular and intracellular [Cl-]. Four human SLC26A6 polypeptide variants each exhibited rates of bidirectional [14C]oxalate flux, Cl−/HCO3− exchange, and Cl-/OH- exchange nearly equivalent to those of mouse slc26a6. Cl−/HCO3− exchange by both orthologs was cAMP-sensitive, further enhanced by coexpressed wild type cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator but inhibited by cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator ΔF508. However, the very low rates of 36Cl- and [35S]sulfate transport by all active human SLC26A6 isoforms contrasted with the high rates of the mouse ortholog. Human and mouse orthologs also differed in patterns of acute regulation. Studies of human-mouse chimeras revealed cosegregation of the high 36Cl- transport phenotype with the transmembrane domain of mouse slc26a6. Mouse slc26a6 and human SLC26A6 each mediated electroneutral Cl−/HCO3− and Cl-/OH- exchange. In contrast, whereas Cl-/oxalate exchange by mouse slc26a6 was electrogenic, that mediated by human SLC26A6 appeared electroneutral. The increased currents observed in oocytes expressing either mouse or human ortholog were pharmacologically distinct from the accompanying monovalent anion exchange activities. The human SLC26A6 polypeptide variants SLC26A6c and SLC26A6d were inactive as transporters of oxalate, sulfate, and chloride. Thus, the orthologous mouse and human SLC26A6 proteins differ in anion selectivity, transport mechanism, and acute regulation, but both mediate electroneutral Cl−/HCO3− exchange.

The slc4 and slc26 gene families encode two distinct groups of gene products that transport HCO3- and other anions in mammalian cells. The SLC4 and SLC26 proteins are important contributors to transepithelial movement of fluids and electrolytes and to cellular pH and volume regulation. Herein we describe the cDNA cloning from the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans of four anion bicarbonate transporter (abts) homologs of slc4 cDNA and eight sulfate permease (sulp) homologs of slc26 cDNA. Analysis of transgenic nematode strains carrying promoter:: GFP fusions suggests relatively restricted expression patterns for many of these genes. At least three genes are expressed primarily in the intestine, three are expressed primarily in the excretory cell, and one is expressed in both of these polarized cell types. One of the genes is also expressed exclusively in the myoepithelium-like cells of the pharynx. Many of the sulp gene products localize to the basolateral membrane rather than to the apical membrane. Several ABTS and SULP proteins exhibited anion transport function in Xenopus oocytes. The strongest Cl- transporter among these also mediated Cl-/HCO3- exchange. These findings encourage exploitation of the genetic strengths of the nematode model system in the study of the physiological roles of anion transport by the proteins of these two highly conserved gene families.

We have previously defined in the NH2-terminal cytoplasmic domain of the mouse AE2/SLC4A2 anion exchanger a critical role for the highly conserved amino acids (aa) 336-347 in determining wild-type pH sensitivity of anion transport. We have now engineered hexa-Ala ((A)6) and individual amino acid substitutions to investigate the importance to pH-dependent regulation of AE2 activity of the larger surrounding region of aa 312-578. 4,4'-Diisothiocyanostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid (DIDS)-sensitive 36Cl- efflux from AE2-expressing Xenopus oocytes was monitored during changes in pHi or pHo in HEPES-buffered and in 5% CO2/HCO3- -buffered conditions. Wild-type AE2-mediated 36Cl- efflux was profoundly inhibited at low pHo, with a pHo(50) value = 6.75 +/- 0.05 and was stimulated up to 10-fold by intracellular alkalinization. Individual mutation of several amino acid residues at non-contiguous sites preceding or following the conserved sequence aa 336-347 attenuated pHi and/or pHo sensitivity of 36Cl- efflux. The largest attenuation of pH sensitivity occurred with the AE2 mutant (A)6357-362. This effect was phenocopied by AE2 H360E, suggesting a crucial role for His360. Homology modeling of the three-dimensional structure of the AE2 NH2-terminal cytoplasmic domain (based on the structure of the corresponding region of human AE1) predicts that those residues shown by mutagenesis to be functionally important define at least one localized surface region necessary for regulation of AE2 activity by pH.

Cl-/HCO3- exchange activity mediated by the AE1 anion exchanger is reduced by carbonic anhydrase II (CA2) inhibition or by prevention of CA2 binding to the AE1 C-terminal cytoplasmic tail. This type of AE1 inhibition is thought to represent reduced metabolic channeling of HCO3- to the intracellular HCO3- binding site of AE1. To test the hypothesis that CA2 binding might itself allosterically activate AE1 in Xenopus oocytes, we compared Cl-/Cl- and Cl-/HCO3- exchange activities of AE1 polypeptides with truncation and missense mutations in the C-terminal tail. The distal renal tubular acidosis-associated AE1 901X mutant exhibited both Cl-/Cl- and Cl-/HCO3- exchange activities. In contrast, AE1 896X, 891X, and AE1 missense mutants in the CA2 binding site were inactive as Cl-/HCO3- exchangers despite exhibiting normal Cl-/Cl- exchange activities. Co-expression of CA2 enhanced wild-type AE1-mediated Cl-/HCO3- exchange, but not Cl-/Cl- exchange. CA2 co-expression could not rescue Cl-/HCO3- exchange activity in AE1 mutants selectively impaired in Cl-/HCO3- exchange. However, co-expression of transport-incompetent AE1 mutants with intact CA2 binding sites completely rescued Cl-/HCO3- exchange by an AE1 missense mutant devoid of CA2 binding, with activity further enhanced by CA2 co-expression. The same transport-incompetent AE1 mutants failed to rescue Cl-/HCO3- exchange by the AE1 truncation mutant 896X, despite preservation of the latter's core CA2 binding site. These data increase the minimal extent of a functionally defined CA2 binding site in AE1. The inter-protomeric rescue of HCO3- transport within the AE1 dimer shows functional proximity of the C-terminal cytoplasmic tail of one protomer to the anion translocation pathway in the adjacent protomer within the AE1 heterodimer. The data strongly support the hypothesis that an intact transbilayer anion translocation pathway is completely contained within an AE1 monomer.

Mutations in the human SLC26A3 gene, also known as down‐regulated in adenoma (hDRA), cause autosomal recessive congenital chloride‐losing diarrhoea (CLD). hDRA expressed in Xenopus oocytes mediated bidirectional Cl − ‐Cl − and Cl − ‐HCO 3 − exchange. In contrast, transport of oxalate was low, and transport of sulfate and of butyrate was undetectable. Two CLD missense disease mutants of hDRA were nonfunctional in oocytes. Truncation of up to 44 C‐terminal amino acids from the putatively cytoplasmic C‐terminal hydrophilic domain left transport function unimpaired, but deletion of the adjacent STAS (sulfate transporter anti‐sigma factor antagonist) domain abolished function. hDRA‐mediated Cl − transport was insensitive to changing extracellular pH, but was inhibited by intracellular acidification and activated by NH 4 + at acidifying concentrations. These regulatory responses did not require the presence of either hDRA's N‐terminal cytoplasmic tail or its 44 C‐terminal amino acids, but they did require more proximate residues of the C‐terminal cytoplasmic domain. Although only weakly sensitive to inhibition by stilbenes, hDRA was inhibited with two orders of magnitude greater potency by the anti‐inflammatory drugs niflumate and tenidap. cAMP‐insensitive Cl − ‐HCO 3 − exchange mediated by hDRA gained modest cAMP sensitivity when co‐expressed with cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR). Despite the absence of hDRA transcripts in human cell lines derived from CFTR patients, DRA mRNA was present at wild‐type levels in proximal colon and nearly so in the distal ileum of CFTR(‐/‐) mice. Thus, pharmacological modulation of DRA might be a useful adjunct treatment of cystic fibrosis.

We showed previously that the nonerythroid anion exchanger AE2 and the erythroid anion exchanger AE1 differ greatly in their regulation by acute changes in intracellular pH (pH(i)) and extracellular pH (pH(o)). We have now examined how AE2, but not AE1, is activated by two stimuli with opposing effects on oocyte pH(i): an alkalinizing stimulus, hypertonicity, and an acidifying stimulus, NH(4)(+). We find that both NH(2)-terminal cytoplasmic and COOH-terminal transmembrane domains of AE2 are required for activation by either stimulus. Directed by initial deletion mutagenesis studies of the NH(2)-terminal cytoplasmic domain, an alanine scan of AE2 amino acids 336-347 identified residues whose individual mutation abolished or severely attenuated sensitivity to both or only one activating stimulus. Chelation of cytoplasmic Ca(2+) (Ca(i)(2+)) diminished or abolished AE2 stimulation by NH(4)(+) and by hypertonicity. Calmidazolium inhibited AE2 activity, but not that of AE1. AE2 was insensitive to many other modifiers of Ca(2+) signaling. Unlike AE2 stimulation by NH(4)(+) and by hypertonicity, AE2 inhibition by calmidazolium required only AE2's COOH-terminal transmembrane domain.

Polycystin-1 (PKD1) mutations account for approximately 85% of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD). We have shown previously that oocyte surface expression of a transmembrane fusion protein encoding part of the cytoplasmic COOH terminus of PKD1 increases activity of a Ca2+-permeable cation channel. We show here that human ADPKD mutations incorporated into this fusion protein attenuated or abolished encoded cation currents. Point mutations and truncations showed that cation current expression requires integrity of a region encompassing the putative coiled coil domain of the PKD1 cytoplasmic tail. Whereas these loss-of-function mutants did not exhibit dominant negative phenotypes, coexpression of a fusion protein expressing the interacting COOH-terminal cytoplasmic tail of PKD2 did suppress cation current. Liganding of the ectodomain of the PKD1 fusion protein moderately activated cation current. The divalent cation permeability and pharmacological profile of the current has been extended. Inducible expression of the PKD1 fusion in EcR-293 cells was also associated with activation of cation channels and increased Ca2+ entry.

Tubular acid-base transport regulates systemic acid-base balance. Transepithelial acid-base transport across nephron segments requires the coordinated control of intracellular pH and cellular volume by transporters of protons and bicarbonate. Bicarbonate transporter polypeptides are encoded by at least two gene families, SLC4 and SLC26. The SLC4 gene family includes at least three Na()+)-independent chloride-bicarbonate exchanger genes and multiple Na(+)-bicarbonate cotransporter and Na(+)-dependent anion exchanger genes. The most extensively studied among them are the Na(+)-independent anion exchangers, AE1, AE2, and AE3, all of which are expressed in kidney. The AE1 gene encodes eAE1 (band 3), the major intrinsic protein of the erythrocyte, as well as kAE1, the basolateral Cl/HCO3 exchanger of the acid-secreting Type A intercalated cell. Mutations in AE1 are responsible for some forms of heritable distal renal tubular acidosis. The widely expressed AE2 anion exchanger participates in recovery from alkaline load and in regulatory cell volume increase following shrinkage. AE2 can also be regulated by ammonium ion. These properties are not shared by the closely related AE1 anion exchanger. Less is known about AE3 in kidney. Structure-function studies of recombinant proteins involving chimeras, deletions, and point mutations have delineated regions of AE2 which are important in exhibition of the regulatory properties absent from AE1. These include regions of the transmembrane domain and the N-terminal cytoplasmic domain. Noncontiguous regions in the middle of the N-terminal cytoplasmic domain are of particular importance for acute regulation by several types of stimulus.

We reported recently that regulation by intracellular pH (pH(i)) of the murine Cl-/HCO(3)(-) exchanger AE2 requires amino acid residues 310-347 of the polypeptide's NH(2)-terminal cytoplasmic domain. We have now identified individual amino acid residues within this region whose integrity is required for regulation of AE2 by pH. 36Cl- efflux from AE2-expressing Xenopus oocytes was monitored during variation of extracellular pH (pH(o)) with unclamped or clamped pH(i), or during variation of pH(i) at constant pH(o). Wild-type AE2-mediated 36Cl- efflux was profoundly inhibited by acid pH(o), with a value of pH(o50) = 6.87 +/- 0.05, and was stimulated up to 10-fold by the intracellular alkalinization produced by bath removal of the preequilibrated weak acid, butyrate. Systematic hexa-alanine [(A)6]bloc substitutions between aa 312-347 identified the greatest acid shift in pH(o(50)) value, approximately 0.8 pH units in the mutant (A)6 342-347, but only a modest acid-shift in the mutant (A)6 336-341. Two of the six (A)6 mutants retained normal pH(i) sensitivity of 36Cl- efflux, whereas the (A)6 mutants 318-323, 336-341, and 342-347 were not stimulated by intracellular alkalinization. We further evaluated the highly conserved region between aa 336-347 by alanine scan and other mutagenesis of single residues. Significant changes in AE2 sensitivity to pH(o) and to pH(i) were found independently and in concert. The E346A mutation acid-shifted the pH(o(0) value to the same extent whether pH(i) was unclamped or held constant during variation of pH(o). Alanine substitution of the corresponding glutamate residues in the cytoplasmic domains of related AE anion exchanger polypeptides confirmed the general importance of these residues in regulation of anion exchange by pH. Conserved, individual amino acid residues of the AE2 cytoplasmic domain contribute to independent regulation of anion exchange activity by pH(o) as well as pH(i).

The cytoplasmic C-terminal portion of the polycystin-1 polypeptide (PKD1(1–226)) regulates several important cell signaling pathways, and its deletion suffices to cause autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease. However, a functional link between PKD1 and the ion transport processes required to drive renal cyst enlargement has remained elusive. We report here that expression at the Xenopus oocyte surface of a transmembrane fusion protein encoding the C-terminal portion of the PKD1 cytoplasmic tail, PKD1(115–226), but not the N-terminal portion, induced a large, Ca2+-permeable cation current, which shifted oocyte reversal potential (E rev) by +33 mV. Whole cell currents were sensitive to inhibition by La3+, Gd3+, and Zn2+, and partially inhibited by SKF96365 and amiloride. Currents were not activated by bath hypertonicity, but were inhibited by acid pH. Outside-out patches pulled from PKD1(115–226)-expressing oocytes exhibited a 5.1-fold increased NP o of endogenous 20-picosiemens cation channels of linear conductance. PKD1(115–226)-injected oocytes also exhibited elevated NP o of unitary calcium currents in outside-out and cell-attached patches, and elevated calcium permeability documented by fluorescence ratio and45Ca2+ flux experiments. Both Ca2+conductance and influx were inhibited by La3+. Mutation of candidate phosphorylation sites within PKD1(115–226) abolished the cation current. We conclude that the C-terminal cytoplasmic tail of PKD1 up-regulates inward current that includes a major contribution from Ca2+-permeable nonspecific cation channels. Dysregulation of these or similar channels in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease may contribute to cyst formation or expansion.

K-Cl cotransport regulates cell volume and chloride equilibrium potential. Inhibition of erythroid K-Cl cotransport has emerged as an important adjunct strategy for the treatment of sickle cell anemia. However, structure-function relationships among the polypeptide products of the four K-Cl cotransporter (KCC) genes are little understood. We have investigated the importance of the N- and C-terminal cytoplasmic domains of mouse KCC1 to its K-Cl cotransport function expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Truncation of as few as eight C-terminal amino acids (aa) abolished function despite continued polypeptide accumulation and surface expression. These C-terminal loss-of-function mutants lacked a dominant negative phenotype. Truncation of the N-terminal 46 aa diminished function. Removal of 89 or 117 aa (Delta(N)117) abolished function despite continued polypeptide accumulation and surface expression and exhibited dominant negative phenotypes that required the presence of the C-terminal cytoplasmic domain. The dominant negative loss-of-function mutant Delta(N)117 was co-immunoprecipitated with wild type KCC1 polypeptide, and its co-expression did not reduce wild type KCC1 at the oocyte surface. Delta(N)117 also exhibited dominant negative inhibition of human KCC1 and KCC3 and, with lower potency, mouse KCC4 and rat KCC2.