Zearalenone (ZEN) is an estrogenic mycotoxin commonly found in cereals, animal feed, and processed foods, making it an important concern for food safety and public health. Conventional chromatographic and immunological methods can detect ZEN; however, they often require expensive instruments, lengthy sample preparation, and skilled personnel, which restrict their use for rapid and on-site testing. Electrochemical sensors have attracted enormous interest of the scientific community because of their high sensitivity, rapid response, low cost, miniaturization potential, and compatibility with portable systems. The analytical performance of the electrochemical sensors is strongly influenced by electrode materials, morphology, conductivity, porosity, surface functionality, and the efficiency of bioreceptor immobilization. Despite several reviews on mycotoxin detection, a systematic assessment connecting electrode-material design, modification strategies, sensing mechanisms, and electroanalytical performance specifically for ZEN sensing remain limited. This review critically evaluates recent advances in metal oxides, carbon-based materials, metal-organic- and covalent organic frameworks, MXenes, polymers, and hybrid composites for electrochemical ZEN detection. Particular attention has been given to their roles in electron transfer, analyte enrichment, selectivity, and real-sample analysis. The review also compares the major limitations of current sensing systems, including complex fabrication, matrix interference, insufficient long-term stability, poor inter-electrode reproducibility, and limited scalability. Finally, future directions for developing robust, cost-effective, portable, and commercially viable ZEN sensors are discussed.

ABSTRACT In this study, sodium (Na) doped graphitic carbon nitride (NGCN) was synthesized by simple co‐pyrolysis method and explored for photocatalytic H 2 evolution under visible‐light irradiation. The structural, morphological, optical, and surface properties of the prepared materials were investigated by x‐ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy‐dispersive x‐ray (EDX) spectroscopy and elemental mapping, ultraviolet–visible (UV–vis) spectroscopy, photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy, and Brunauer‐Emmett‐Teller (BET) analysis. EDX analysis confirmed the presence and uniform distribution of Na in NGCN, whereas UV–vis investigations showed a decrease in the optical band gap from 2.70 eV (for pristine GCN) to 2.61 eV (for NGCN). NGCN (15 mg) exhibited hydrogen (H 2 ) evolution of 593 µmol g −1 after 10 h which is higher compared to the pristine GCN (340 µmol g −1 ) The addition of 2 wt% Pt with optimization of the photocatalyst loading and sacrificial reagent, significantly enhanced the H 2 evolution activity. The optimized system containing 80 mg NGCN and 2 wt% Pt achieved H 2 evolution of 7435 µmol g −1 after 10 h in the presence of triethanolamine (TEOA). The prepared photocatalyst maintained comparable performance over four consecutive reuse cycles. These observations show that Na doping may be an efficient strategy for improving the visible‐light photocatalytic performance of NGCN.

A straightforward Rh(III)-catalyzed [4 + 3] annulation is developed for the construction of heterocycle-fused azepines from 2-arylquinazolines and allyl ethers. This protocol leverages sequential C-H/N-H functionalization to facilitate a beta-hydride elimination pathway within a seven-membered rhodacycle intermediate. The mechanistic divergence effectively bypasses the conventional beta-alkoxy elimination pathway that typically leads to six-membered ring formation. This approach offers a highly atom- and step-economical route to diversely functionalized azepines with good yields and broad substrate tolerance. The synthetic utility of this approach is shown by the successful incorporation of heteroaromatic and polyaromatic motifs, providing a versatile tool for assembling structurally sophisticated heterocycles.

Recent years have witnessed growth in the design and fabrication of cerium oxide (CeO2) based materials for sensing applications. This review summarizes the recent progress in the fabrication of CeO2 based sensors for the monitoring of environmental pollutants and biomedical diagnostics. The synthesis methods for the construction of CeO2 based materials have been compiled. Furthermore, electrochemical sensors based on CeO2 and its hybrids with carbon, polymers, MOFs, etc. are discussed for the quantification of various analytes. The importance of CeO2 based materials as electrode modifiers for electrochemical sensing application has been discussed. Subsequently, progress in CeO2 based materials for gas sensing technology has been summarized. The analytical performance of electrochemical as well as gas sensors has been discussed. The limitations, future trends, and perspectives of CeO2 based composite materials for electrochemical and gas sensors have been discussed.

The increasing need for electrochemical energy storage systems with high power density and long-term stability has driven intensive efforts to develop next-generation electrode materials that surpass the limitations of conventional carbonaceous and transition metal-based architectures. In this context, bismuth ferrite (BiFeO3; BFO), which is also known as perovskite oxide, has been employed as a promising electrode material for energy storage applications. In the past few years, BFO and its hybrid materials have emerged as promising candidates for the fabrication of supercapacitors. However, their practical development is constrained by limited intrinsic electrical conductivity, sluggish charge-transfer kinetics, and structural instability under repeated cycling. This review critically examines recent progress in BFO-based electrode materials for supercapacitor applications. The synthesis methods for BFO-based materials have been discussed, and their advantages and limitations have been compared. Furthermore, the electrochemical performance of BFO-based hybrid materials for supercapacitor application has been critically examined. The energy storage mechanism and limitations of BFO-based supercapacitors have been discussed. Future perspectives for BFO-based materials for energy storage applications have been discussed.

Matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) is a zinc-dependent endopeptidase which plays a key role in the extracellular matrix-remodeling and cancer metastasis. Nevertheless, despite the vast number of attempts, MMP-2 selective and low-toxicity development is a problematic area because of the insufficient selectivity and the off-target effect of the previous candidates. This work demonstrated that an integrated machine learning-driven virtual screening pipeline can be used to discover better selectivity, and binding stability novel MMP-2 inhibitors. Various models of classification were trained with the help of a set of different molecular fingerprints, and random Forest and radial-basis-function Support Vector Model of classification showed the best predictive results (AUC > 0.97, MCC > 0.86). These models have been used to filter the Maybridge compound library resulting in the selection of the top-ranked ones. Molecular docking and subsequent ADMET profiling of the shortlisted seven potential compounds yielded a list of 1. Molecular dynamics simulations (100 ns) showed that GK03418 and RH00707 had stable binding conformations similar to that of the reference inhibitor. Free energy landscape mapping and principal component analysis was another method that proved thermodynamic stability of GK03418. The energetics of binding free-energy calculations with MM/PBSA and MM/GBSA showed positive results and the most promising inhibitor was GK03418. In general, this paper provides a computationally sound and scalable structure of the discovery of selective MMP-2 inhibitors that have future anticancer applicability.

This study presents an efficient strategy for synthesizing ring-fused indoles through Rh(III)-catalyzed C-H activation of N-arylpyrimidin-2-amines with maleimides, utilizing a pyrimidinyl directing group. The reaction proceeds via a formal [3 + 2] annulation, forming new C-C and C-N bonds and facilitating the streamlined construction of diversely functionalized pyrimidinyl-incorporated pyrrolo[3,4-b]indolediones. Furthermore, in the pursuit of potential metal-ion chemosensors, a new ring-fused indole-based fluorescent probe was identified, exhibiting high selectivity and sensitivity for Fe3+ detection.

This study introduces novel magnetic nanocomposite-hydrogel beads composed of alginate (Alg), graphene oxide (GO), and CoMnFeO₄ nanoparticles for the efficient adsorption of Pirimicarb (a carbamate pesticide) from water. The beads were synthesized via ionotropic gelation and optimized using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) with a Box-Behnken design, achieving a predicted maximum adsorption capacity of 196 mg/g. Characterization through FT-IR, XRD, SEM, and VSM confirmed the successful integration of components, revealing enhanced surface functionality, magnetic properties, and porosity. Batch adsorption studies, optimized via Central composite design (CCD), yielded 99.28% removal under conditions of pH 7.69, 18.02 mg/L initial concentration, 1.06 g/L dosage, and 49.76 min contact time. Isotherm analysis favored the Freundlich model (R2 = 0.990), indicating heterogeneous multilayer adsorption, while kinetics followed the double-exponential model (R2 = 0.990), suggesting a two-stage diffusion process. Thermodynamic parameters (ΔH° = -100.275 kJ/mol, ΔS° = -297.34 J/mol·K) confirmed an exothermic, spontaneous physisorption-dominated mechanism. The beads exhibited excellent reusability over six cycles (retaining >80% efficiency with ethanol desorption) and robust performance in river water (89.7% removal). The synergistic roles of alginate's hydrogen bonding, GO's π-π stacking, and CoMnFeO₄'s magnetic separability position these beads as a promising adsorbent for pesticide remediation in environmental applications.

Carbon quantum dots (CQDs) have attracted a lot of attention in biomedical applications because of their highwater solubility, low cost, and excellent biocompatibility. In this work, europium and terbium-decorated carbon quantum dots (Eu/Tb-CQDs) as photoluminescent sensors for Ag+ and Hg2+ detection with intracellular bioimaging applications. Eu/Tb-CQDs were synthesized using alpha-dextrose and melamine as a carbon and nitrogen source and EuCl3/TbCl3 as a dual metal doping. In this aspect, the strong coordination between the Eu3+/Tb3+ ions and the hydroxyl and carboxylate oxygen at the CQDs surface allows them to be combined into the carbon core. The as-synthesized Eu/Tb-CQDs were thoroughly characterized by using various analytical such as UV-visible/photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy, FTIR, XRD, TEM, and XPS analysis. The as-synthesized Eu/Tb-CQDs exhibited a characteristic excitation-dependent PL emission peak at 519 nm upon excitation at a wavelength of 338 nm. The size of the as-prepared Eu/Tb-CQDs is 4.13 +/- 0.18 nm with a high quantum yield of 26.2 +/- 0.4 %. The obtained Eu-GQDs were used as a new "on-off" Photoluminescent probe for the label-free determination of Ag+ and Hg2+ ions with high sensitivity and selectivity. In addition, a good linear relationship between PL intensity (P0/P) vs. Ag+ and Hg2+ ions concentration in the range of 0 to 10 mu M (R2 = 0.9949 and 0.9905) with limit of detection (LOD) of 50.1 nM (Ag+) and 33.3 nM (Hg2+). The sequential addition of EDTA with Ag+ and Hg2+ ions can recover the PL intensity in a reversible manner. The assay notably showed strong reliability for real water samples in tap water and lake water indicating its potential uses for monitoring Ag+ and Hg2+ in complex environments. Besides, the Eu/Tb-CQDs holds good aqueous dispersibility and low cytotoxicity, which shows great potential applications in bioimaging.

The synthesis of zirconyl ferrite (ZrFe2O4) nanoparticles (NPs) immobilized within a guar-gum (GG) biopolymer matrix using a combination of the coprecipitation method and sol-gel method, resulting in the successful formation of GG@ZrFe bionanocomposite (BNC) is reported in this work. The synthesized composite was thoroughly examined using analytical methods, namely FTIR, XRD, SEM-EDX, TEM, XPS, VSM, UV-Vis spectroscopy, PL spectroscopy, and Zeta potential measurements. The optical studies revealed a direct band gap of 1.23 eV, which shows a strong potential as visible-light driven photocatalyst. TEM analysis reveals a homogenous distribution of NPs with an average particle size of 11.20 nm. The photocatalytic activity of GG@ZrFe BNC was investigated using malachite green (MG) dye under visible light irradiation. The composite shows remarkable activity, achieving 99.79% degradation of 40 mg L- 1 MG solution at pH 8 within 30 min of visible light exposure. According to kinetics analysis, the degradation process was a pseudo-first order, with a rate constant (k1) of 0.09 min- 1, and a minimum half-life of 7.7 min at 40 mg L- 1 accompanied by correlation coefficient (R2) of 0.99. The reactive species trapping experiments revealed that superoxide radicals (center dot O2- ) played the predominant role in the mechanism of MG degradation. Furthermore, the GG@ZrFe BNC shows outstanding reusability, maintaining high photocatalytic efficiency for five consecutive cycles. These results demonstrate the GG@ZrFe BNC as highly efficient, recyclable photocatalyst with strong potential for the removal of organic pollutants such as malachite green from wastewater.

Nickel oxide (NiO), a wide bandgap p-type semiconductor, has emerged as a promising material for electrochemical sensing owing to its excellent redox properties, chemical stability, and facile synthesis. Its strong electrocatalytic activity enables effective detection of diverse analytes, including glucose, hydrogen peroxide, environmental pollutants, and biomolecules. Advances in nanotechnology have enabled the development of NiO-based nanostructures such as nanoparticles, nanowires, and nanoflakes, which offer enhanced surface area and improved electron transfer. Integration with conductive materials like graphene, carbon nanotubes, and metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) further enhance sensor performance through synergistic effects. Innovations in synthesis techniques, including hydrothermal, sol–gel, and green approaches, have expanded the applicability of NiO in next-generation sensing platforms. This review summarizes recent progress in the structural engineering, composite formation, and electrochemical mechanisms of NiO-based materials for advanced electrochemical sensing applications.

Fluorinated organic molecules have become indispensable in modern chemistry, owing to the unique properties imparted by fluorine to other compounds, including enhanced metabolic stability, controlled lipophilicity, and improved bioavailability. The site-selective incorporation of fluorine atoms into organic frameworks is essential in pharmaceutical, agrochemical, and material science research. In recent years, catalytic fluorination has become an important methodology for the efficient and selective incorporation of fluorine atoms into complex molecular architectures. This review highlights advances in catalytic fluorination reactions over the past six years and describes the contributions of transition metal catalysts, photocatalysts, organocatalysts, and electrochemical systems that have enabled site-selective fluorination under a variety of conditions. Particular attention is given to the use of well-defined fluorinating agents, including Selectfluor, N-fluorobenzenesulfonimide (NFSI), AlkylFluor, Synfluor, and hypervalent iodine reagents. These reagents have been combined with diverse catalytic systems, such as AgNO3, Rh(II), Mo-based complexes, Co(II)-salen, and various organocatalysts, including β,β-diaryl serine catalysts, isothiourea catalysts, and chiral phase-transfer catalysts. This review summarizes proposed mechanisms reported in the original studies and discusses examples of electrophilic, nucleophilic, radical, photoredox, and electrochemical fluorination pathways. Recent developments in stereoselective and more sustainable protocols are also examined. By consolidating these strategies, this article provides an up-to-date perspective on catalytic fluorination and its impact on synthetic organic chemistry.

Phytochemicals from medicinal plants offer significant therapeutic benefits, yet their clinical utility is often limited by poor solubility, instability, and low bioavailability. Nanotechnology presents a transformative approach to overcome these challenges by encapsulating phytochemicals in nanocarriers that enhance stability, targeted delivery, and controlled release. This review highlights major classes of phytochemicals such as polyphenols, flavonoids, and alkaloids and explores various nanocarrier systems including liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, and hybrid platforms. It also discusses their mechanisms of action, improved pharmacokinetics, and disease-specific targeting. Further, the review examines clinical advancements, regulatory considerations, and emerging innovations such as smart nanocarriers, AI-driven formulation, and sustainable manufacturing. Nano-phytomedicine offers a promising path toward safer, more effective, and personalized therapies, bridging traditional herbal knowledge with modern biomedical technology.

This study demonstrates that an LiF/HCl‐etched two‐dimensional Ti carbide MXene (2D Ti 3 C 2 T x MXene@CC) achieves superior surface quality, with fewer defects, and enhanced functional group attachment and electrochemical performance, relative to the HF‐etched counterpart. The reported method demonstrates improved safety and environmental friendliness, avoiding the risks posed by HF while preserving the MXene's structural integrity, rendering the method ideal for advanced flexible energy storage applications. FESEM and HR‐TEM images confirmed the sheet‐like morphology of the MXene, and AFM revealed its thin‐layered structure. FESEM with EDS mapping confirmed the presence of Ti, C, O, and F in the MXenes. with atomic weight percentages of 65.48%, 16.13%, 9.60%, and 8.82%, respectively. XRD highlighted the octahedral crystalline phase, especially the (002) crystalline plane, within the MXene. The 2D Ti 3 C 2 T x MXene@CC was used as the working electrode in flexible supercapacitor studies, and a mixture of poly(vinyl alcohol) and KOH was used as an electrolyte; a specific capacitance, energy density, and power density of 360.4 F g −1 , 12 Wh kg −1 , and 123 W kg −1 , respectively, were obtained. Furthermore, this flexible supercapacitor exhibited 83.12% capacity retention and 99.42% Coulombic efficiency over 10,000 cycles.

Over the past five years, maleimide scaffolds have gained considerable attention in organic synthesis for their role in forming cyclized molecules through annulation and C-H activation. As versatile and reactive coupling agents, maleimides have enabled the efficient synthesis of various cyclized products, including annulation, benzannulation, cycloaddition, and spirocyclization, with applications in medicinal chemistry, drug discovery, and materials science. Despite the extensive study of maleimide chemistry, certain reactions-such as cycloaddition-based annulation, photoannulation, and electrochemical transformations-remain underexplored despite their promising potential in the pharmaceutical and chemical industries. Recent advancements, such as photocatalysis and electrochemical methods, have expanded the utility of maleimides, providing more sustainable and selective approaches for synthesizing complex molecules. This review compiles research published between 2019 and 2024, highlighting the substrate scope, reaction diversity, and industrial relevance of maleimide-based annulation strategies. Additionally, we discuss emerging trends and future directions in maleimide chemistry, exploring opportunities for novel reaction pathways and broader applications in synthetic biology and materials science.

Carbon quantum dots (CQDs) are luminous, nearly spherical nanoparticles known for their water solubility, excellent biocompatibility, and adjustable chemical and physical characteristics, making them suitable for diverse applications. In this work, Gadolinium-doped carbon quantum dots (Gd-CQDs) were synthesized by hydrothermal method with gadolinium used as metal source, citric acid and melamine precursor used as a carbon and nitrogen source. The as-prepared Gd-CQDs were characterized by using UV-Vis, photoluminescence (PL), FTIR, XRD, HRTEM, and XPS analysis. The Gd-CQDs exhibited strong UV-Vis absorption peaks at 293 nm and 367 nm, with a photoluminescence (PL) emission at 526 nm and a fluorescence quantum yield of 19.7 % with an average size was 3.21 +/- 0.3 nm. A novel dual-readout sensor, based on Gd-CQDs were also tested as colorimetric and PL sensors for the highly selective and sensitive detection of mercury ions (Hg2+). Upon interaction with Hg2+ ions, the sensing Gd-CQDs solution transitions from yellow to colorless is observable by the naked eye, while its PL remains quenched. The colorimetric and PL response to Hg2+ ions is good linear in the ranges between 0 and 50 mu M, and the limit of detection (LOD) are 104.4 nM in case of colorimetry and 60.2 nM in case of PL. The reversibility of the sensor was also evaluated, revealing a retention of 90 % efficiency after 10 cycles. In biological assays, the Gd-CQDs exhibited negligible cytotoxicity, with cell viability exceeding 94 %, and were successfully used for bioimaging of Hg2+ ions in HCT-116 cells. Moreover, real water sample analysis demonstrated high accuracy in Hg2+ detection, with recovery rates ranging from 98.9 % to 103.8 % and relative standard deviations (RSD) between 0.36 % and 2.32 %. These results highlight the Gd-CQDs as a highly effective, stable, and selective probe for Hg2+ ions detection in environmental and biological applications.

It is well known that nitrite is widely used in industrial and agricultural sectors as a preservative, corrosion inhibitor, and intermediate in chemical synthesis; consequently, nitrite residues are often present in food, water, and the environment as a result of meat curing, fertilizer use, and wastewater discharge. Despite having several applications, nitrite exerts toxic effects on human beings and aquatic life. Therefore, the monitoring of nitrite is of particular significance to avoid negative impacts on human health, the environment, and aquatic life. Previously, the electrochemical method has been extensively used for the development of nitrite sensors using various advanced electrode materials. Additionally, zinc oxide (ZnO), cerium oxide (CeO2), titanium dioxide (TiO2), copper oxide (CuO), iron oxides, nickel oxide (NiO), polymers, MXenes, reduced graphene oxide (rGO), carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphitic carbon nitride (gCN), metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), and other composites have been utilized as electrocatalysts for the fabrication of nitrite electrochemical sensors. This review article provides an overview of the construction of nitrite sensors using advanced electrode materials. The electrochemical activities of the reported nitrite sensors are discussed. Furthermore, limitations and future perspectives regarding the determination of nitrite are discussed.

The isoindoloindolone and indenoindolone scaffolds are structurally distinct and synthetically versatile polycyclic indole derivatives that have gained significant attention in medicinal and synthetic organic chemistry. These fused-ring systems combine the pharmacophoric indole core with extended conjugation, imparting diverse biological activities and improved physicochemical properties relevant to drug design and functional materials. Over the past two decades, numerous synthetic approaches have been developed to access these motifs, yet the methods remain scattered across the literature. This review categorizes all reported protocols since 2002 into four major groups: (i) transition-metal-catalyzed strategies, mainly Pd-, Rh-, and Cu-catalyzed annulations, carbonylations, and C–H activations; (ii) Lewis-acid-catalyzed condensations of indoles with aldehydes, ketones, or alkynes under metal-free conditions; (iii) base-mediated, metal-free approaches employing SNAr, benzyne, or enolate chemistry; and (iv) one-pot domino sequences, including ionic, oxidative, or reductive cascades and hypervalent-iodine-promoted annulations, emphasizing atom economy and operational efficiency. Each section summarizes representative substrates, reaction conditions, and mechanistic insights, enabling direct comparison of catalyst performance and synthetic scope. This comprehensive review unifies two decades of dispersed studies, providing a concise reference for chemists developing fused-indole architectures.

Over the past decade, cellular immunotherapy has emerged as a transformative strategy for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), with dendritic-cell (DC) vaccines, T-cell vaccines, and natural killer (NK)-cell therapies demonstrating distinct mechanisms and clinical potential. DC vaccines capitalize on antigen presentation to prime tumor-specific T-cell responses, showing excellent safety profiles limited mainly to injection-site reactions and flu-like symptoms. While monotherapy has shown limited efficacy, combinations with checkpoint inhibitors or chemotherapy enhance immune activation and survival outcomes. Recent innovations, including neoantigen-loaded, mRNA-electroporated, and exosome-pulsed DCs, demonstrate improved immunogenicity and personalized approaches. T-cell vaccines, designed to activate cytotoxic CD8+ T-cell responses, have been tested across multiple platforms, including peptide-based (MAGE-A3), viral vector (TG4010/MUC1), and mRNA (CV9201/92) formulations. While the phase III MAGRIT trial presented no disease-free survival (DFS) benefit with adjuvant MAGE-A3 vaccination, the TG4010 vaccine improved progression-free survival (PFS; HR 0.66) and overall survival (OS; HR 0.67) in MUC1-positive NSCLC when combined with chemotherapy. Current strategies focus on personalized neoantigen vaccines and KRAS-targeted approaches (e.g., ELI-002), with ongoing phase III trials evaluating their potential in resectable NSCLC. NK-cell therapies have also shown promise, with early trials establishing the feasibility of autologous and allogeneic infusions, while engineered CAR-NK cells enhance tumor-specific targeting. Combination strategies with checkpoint inhibitors significantly improve response rates and PFS, revealing synergies between innate and adaptive immunity. Recent advances include cytokine-enhanced, memory-like NK cells to overcome immunosuppression and “off-the-shelf” products for broader clinical use. Together, these cellular immunotherapies represent a versatile and evolving frontier in NSCLC treatment, with ongoing research optimizing combinations, delivery platforms, and patient selection to maximize therapeutic benefit.

Fluorescent nanoprobes operating in the NIR-II window have gained considerable attention for biomedical imaging because of their deep-tissue penetration, reduced scattering, and high spatial resolution. Their tunable optical behavior, flexible surface chemistry, and capacity for multifunctional design enable sensitive detection and targeted visualization of biological structures in vivo. This review highlights recent advances in the design and optical engineering of four widely studied NIR-II nanoprobe families: quantum dots, carbon dots, upconversion nanoparticles, and dye-doped silica nanoparticles. These materials were selected because they offer well-defined architectures, controllable emission properties, and substantial mechanistic insight supporting discussions of imaging performance and translational potential. Particular focus is placed on emerging strategies for activatable, targeted, and ratiometric probe construction. Recent efforts addressing biosafety, large-scale synthesis, optical stability, and early preclinical validation are also summarized to clarify the current progress and remaining challenges that influence clinical readiness. By outlining these developments, this review provides an updated and focused perspective on how engineered NIR-II nanoprobes are advancing toward practical use in biomedical imaging and precision diagnostics.