There is currently a lack of consensus on the spatial, seasonal and decadal-scale patterns of Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) spawning in the western Atlantic Ocean. We compiled ichthyoplankton and reproductive data to characterize bluefin spawning patterns and the uncertainty in these patterns. Ichthyoplankton data indicates that bluefin spawn in the Gulf of America/Gulf of Mexico, northwest Caribbean Sea, north of the Bahamas, along the inshore edge of the Florida Current off the Carolinas and in the western Slope Sea. Reproductive studies identified these same spawning areas, as well as the Windward Passage and waters east of the Bahamas. We used regional sea surface temperature cycles and the distribution of electronically tagged bluefin to identify potentially undocumented spawning areas and times. The northwest Sargasso Sea may also support spawning in June but has not been sampled. Our data is consistent with Atlantic bluefin tuna having a continuous spawning distribution that starts in April in the northwest Caribbean and southern Gulf, progresses through the western Sargasso Sea in June and finishes in early-August in the Slope Sea. The northern Gulf and western Slope Sea are identified as the two most prominent spawning locations across this distribution and spawning in the Sargasso Sea needs to be further evaluated. We could not resolve decadal-scale changes in spawning distribution or timing, but an earlier seasonal timing of optimum temperatures for spawning is evident in all areas. Future work to understand bluefin population structure and migrations will benefit from the data compiled during this study.

The commercially important Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus), a large migratory fish, has experienced notable recovery aided by accurate resource assessment and effective fisheries management efforts. Traditionally, this species has been perceived as consisting of eastern and western populations, spawning respectively in the Mediterranean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, with mixing occurring throughout the Atlantic. However, recent studies have challenged this assumption by revealing weak genetic differentiation and identifying a previously unknown spawning ground in the Slope Sea used by Atlantic bluefin tuna of uncertain origin. To further understand the current and past population structure and connectivity of Atlantic bluefin tuna, we have assembled a unique dataset including thousands of genome-wide single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) from 500 larvae, young of the year and spawning adult samples covering the three spawning grounds and including individuals of other Thunnus species. Our analyses support two weakly differentiated but demographically connected ancestral populations that interbreed in the Slope Sea. Moreover, we also identified signatures of introgression from albacore (Thunnus alalunga) into the Atlantic bluefin tuna genome, exhibiting varied frequencies across spawning areas, indicating strong gene flow from the Mediterranean Sea towards the Slope Sea. We hypothesize that the observed genetic differentiation may be attributed to increased gene flow caused by a recent intensification of westward migration by the eastern population, which could have implications for the genetic diversity and conservation of western populations. Future conservation efforts should consider these findings to address potential genetic homogenization in the species.

Striped marlin, Kajikia audax, have been in overfished condition in the Western and Central North Pacific, and overfishing is still occurring, prompting an urgent need to devise conservation and management measures based on the best, current information on biology and ecology of this species. Despite conventional tagging efforts off Hawaii, striped marlin movements are not known across the broader Pacific, and little research has been conducted since 2005. To address this gap, 31 popup satellite archival tags (PSAT) were deployed on striped marlin (138-192 cm eye fork length) between 2016 and 2019 via the Hawaii-based longline fleet. To complement tagging efforts, 148 fin clips were also collected for genetic analyses during June-August 2017. Tag attachments ranged from 1-365 days (median = 74), where mechanical failures and non-reporting tags lowered expected data returns. Striped marlin tracks revealed extensive spatial use of the Central Pacific, spanning 15°S to 43°N and 122 to 170°W, showing diverse seasonal dispersal patterns and individual movements, and some coincided in time and space with known spawning grounds. Genetic profiles of 55 Hawaii-landed striped marlin were assigned to two genetic groups: Australia, New Zealand and Hawaii (n = 19), and Hawaii alone (n=36), suggesting the Hawaii-based longline fleet interacted with individuals from multiple populations.A year-long track confirmed migration between the Central North Pacific and Australia (>9,400 km), and combined with genetic results, is the first to document regional connectivity. By combining tools from conventional and electronic tags, biological sampling, and genomic techniques, a more holistic understanding emerges, suggesting that striped marlin should be collectively managed. Under global warming scenarios and changing pelagic ecosystems, integrative knowledge is critical for designing effective management strategies for rebuilding sustainable populations across the Pacific Ocean.

Striped marlin, Kajikia audax, a top bycatch of the longline fishery, has been designated as being in overfished condition in the Western and Central North Pacific, and overfishing is still occurring. This prompts an urgent need to devise conservation and management measures based on the best, current information on the biology and ecology of this species. Despite decades of conventional tagging around the Hawaiian waters, ecological research on striped marlin in the Central North Pacific has been lacking since 2005, and little is known about striped marlin’s vertical habitat, diving behavior and bycatch vulnerability in this area. To address this knowledge void, 31 popup satellite archival tags (4 X-Tags; Microwave Telemetry, Inc. and 27 MiniPATs; Wildlife Computers Inc.) were deployed on striped marlin (138-192 cm eye fork length) between 2016 and 2019 via the Hawaii-based longline fleet. Transmitted time series records revealed striped marlin spent 38 and 81% of their day and night in the top 5 m, with median daytime and night depths of 44 m and 2 m, respectively. Temperatures experienced were 23.3°C, daytime median, and 24.6°C, nighttime median, to a minimum of 7.6°C at the deepest depth logged, 472 m. Striped marlin exhibited distinct swimming behaviors, including diel depth distributions, excursions around the top of the thermocline, and extended time at the surface, most likely reflecting the dynamic biophysical environment and intrinsic life history of this highly migratory predator. High post-release survivorship (86%) in tagged striped marlin, and their predominant use of the sea surface and mixed layer indicate that live release measures can be a viable bycatch reduction strategy.

The age of sexual maturity of the Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus; ABFT) is a reference point for stock assessment and management. The International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) recognizes a western and an eastern Atlantic ABFT stock, based on the assumptions of separate, exclusive spawning grounds, i.e., the northern Gulf of Mexico and the Mediterranean Sea, with different ages of sexual maturity, 8-12 years vs 3-5 years, respectively. Multiple line of evidences indicate that spawning is not restricted to the Gulf of Mexico and the Mediterranean Sea, and reconsideration of historical documents, as well as results from recent studies, indicate that sexual maturation schedules of the two proposed stocks are similar (3-5 years). The present review of classical and recent literature suggests that ABFT have more complex reproductive behavior than previously considered: on eastern spawning grounds 50% of ABFT females reproduce at 3 years of age and 100% are sexually mature at 5 years of age. In the western management area, younger adults (age >= 5 years) and some larger adults apparently spawn in the northwest Atlantic Ocean across the Slope and Caribbean Seas, whereas the Gulf of Mexico spawners are mostly large adults (age >= 8 years).

Local availability of yellowfin tuna, Thunnus albacares, is a key economic, dietary and cultural concern for Main Hawaiian Islands (MHI) communities and insular fisheries. Consequently, interactions of inshore vs. offshore fisheries and connectivity to yellowfin elsewhere in the Pacific remain important scientific management questions. Local fisheries target adult tuna during the summer months, but subsequent tuna movements, presumably away from the islands after reproduction ceases, remain undocumented. From 2014 to 2016, we partnered with local fishermen to catch and release nineteen yellowfin tuna (41-91 kg, estimated whole weight) off Kaua'i, with popup satellite archival tags programmed for 9-12-month missions. Although data collection periods did not exceed 59 days mainly because of tag hardware failures and predator interactions, short tracks revealed diverse patterns: local residency for some individuals, and rapid, long-distance (>800 km) dispersals in multiple directions for others. Adult yellowfin tuna frequenting the MHI have more complex movements than previously assumed. Despite being a nursery area, whether the assemblage is entirely produced and retained in the region is not resolved. However, attaining 1-year migration records requires tag performance that was not achieved by the deployed tags. It remains a prerequisite for greater understanding of yellowfin in the Main Hawaiian Islands and Central North Pacific, including assessment of their spatial connectivity, impacts of climate change, and shifting ecosystems.

An APH-22 vertical-takeoff-and-landing hexacopter was used to collect aerial images of schools and individuals of juvenile Atlantic bluefin tuna (ABFT; Thunnus thynnus) at the sea surface in the southern Gulf of Maine. Quantitative measures of fish length, width, and inter-fish spacing were obtained from these images by applying calibration settings and performance measures from calibrating, testing, and evaluating the onboard motion and altimeter sensors and the digital camera and lenses. The accuracy and precision of the onboard motion sensors, camera, and lens calibrations were sufficient to provide length measurements to sub-centimeter precision, but the altimeter performance was least reliable and required additional information, such as images of known-sized objects during each flight, to provide measurements at the accuracy and precision needed for data to be incorporated in fisheries management. The APH-22 was ideal for acquiring images of ABFT individuals and schools and may be a useful tool for remotely monitoring the behavior and body condition of these elusive animals.

Ectoparasitic flatworms of Nasicola (Monogenoidea: Capsalidae), which infect nasal epithelium of true tunas (Thunnus spp.), are not well studied, nor have their impacts on the host's olfactory organ been evaluated. Infections of Nasicola hogansi on Atlantic bluefin tuna, Thunnus thynnus, were investigated with emphasis on the relationship between infection prevalence, abundance and mean intensity with bluefin tuna size, sex, body condition and capture month, as well as histopathological effects. Commercially caught Atlantic bluefin tuna (n = 161, 185-305 cm curved fork length) from the Gulf of Maine were sampled during June through August 2009 for infections by N. hogansi. A total of 247 specimens of N. hogansi were collected, with a prevalence of 45.3%, mean abundance of 1.57 (CI: 1.21-2.03) and mean intensity of 3.45 (CI: 2.91-4.22). Neither fish sex nor landing month had a significant effect on parasite parameters. Larger and better-conditioned Atlantic bluefin tuna had a higher mean intensity of infection. Pathology associated with infection by N. hogansi included extensive necrosis, sloughing of the nasal epithelium and associated inflammation of underlying connective tissues. Further epidemiological and pathological study of this host-parasite system is warranted since impaired olfaction, if present, could adversely affect spawning and migration of this top ocean predator.

Conventional tagging methods using plastic streamer ID tags have been the most widely used tool for elucidating fish movements in the last half century. However, this universal method for fish tagging is not optimal for tracking global fish populations because it requires fishermen to log details of each catch while they are also attempting to perform all of their usual at-sea activities. Under the current method, fishermen are asked to remember the time and location of the catch, in addition to its size, weight, and condition of the fish and then record it on a data card or similar. The potentially long delay between the recapture event when a previously tagged fish is caught and the associated data entry creates a barrier to accurate data collection and may result in poor data logging. Building on the work of the Olin College of Engineering Intelligent Vehicles Laboratory, Point Road Solutions, LLC (PRS), in partnership with The Large Pelagics Research Center (LPRC) and the Pacific Islands Fisheries Group (PIFC), the research team has been developing a more streamlined, automated method for fisherman to submit data from fish tags while at sea.In the new process, a fish is tagged with a modified streamer tag carrying a rice grain radio-frequency identification (RFID), chip. A fisherman would scan the tag at or near the time of capture with a compatible RFID reader, which will transmit the fish's tag information to a personal smartphone pre-installed with our reporting application (Hawaii, or "HI", Tag App). The application then appends the tag ID with information such as location, date and time from the phone. Initial tests conducted off the island of Hawaii (Summer 2016) demonstrated that the HI Tag application greatly improved the process of fish tagging and reporting when compared to the current manual data logging method. However, during the 2017 sea trials the HI Tag required extensive interaction with a phone or tablet to properly function. This was deemed inappropriate by the fishermen who asked for a simpler, more streamlined process which was compatible with the kind of environment and work flow found on a fishing vessel at sea. PRS therefore constructed a custom-designed RFID reader with an integrated camera and Bluetooth, designed for use in the kind of challenging environments found on a small working fishing vessels. With this addition, fishermen could scan a tag and image a fish without ever touching their phone or tablet. The RFID information and photo would be automatically transmitted to the phone or tablet via Bluetooth and then associated with time, date and location data on the phone. We tested the improved device off Kona-Kailua, Hawaii, in the summer of 2018 during what turned out to be one of the most prolific Yellowfin fishing periods in living memory. The team then conducted a post-mission interview and debriefing with the local fishermen to determine what aspects of the new generation tagging system were improved and which did not have the desired utility. The feedback has resulted in a finished design that the authors deem "complete", fully functional, and ready for wider distribution and application.

Effective sustainable management of marine fisheries requires that assessed management units (that is, fish stocks) correspond to biological populations. This issue has long been discussed in the context of Atlantic bluefin tuna ( ABFT , Thunnus thynnus ) management, which currently considers two unmixed stocks but does not take into account how individuals born in each of the two main spawning grounds (Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) mix in feeding aggregations throughout the Atlantic Ocean. Using thousands of genome‐wide molecular markers obtained from larvae and young of the year collected at the species’ main spawning grounds, we provide what is, to the best of our knowledge, the first direct genetic evidence for “natal homing” in ABFT . This has facilitated the development of an accurate, cost‐effective, and non‐invasive tool for tracing the genetic origin of ABFT that allows for the assignment of catches to their population of origin, which is crucial for ensuring that ABFT management is based on biologically meaningful stock units rather than simply on catch location.

The Atlantic bluefin tuna is a highly migratory species emblematic of the challenges associated with shared fisheries management. In an effort to resolve the species’ stock dynamics, a genomewide search for spatially informative single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) was undertaken, by way of sequencing reduced representation libraries. An allele frequency approach to SNP discovery was used, combining the data of 555 larvae and young‐of‐the‐year (LYOY) into pools representing major geographical areas and mapping against a newly assembled genomic reference. From a set of 184,895 candidate loci, 384 were selected for validation using 167 LYOY. A highly discriminatory genotyping panel of 95 SNPs was ultimately developed by selecting loci with the most pronounced differences between western Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea LYOY. The panel was evaluated by genotyping a different set of LYOY (n = 326), and from these, 77.8% and 82.1% were correctly assigned to western Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea origins, respectively. The panel revealed temporally persistent differentiation among LYOY from the western Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea (FST = 0.008, p = .034). The composition of six mixed feeding aggregations in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea was characterized using genotypes from medium (n = 184) and large (n = 48) adults, applying population assignment and mixture analyses. The results provide evidence of persistent population structuring across broad geographic areas and extensive mixing in the Atlantic Ocean, particularly in the mid‐Atlantic Bight and Gulf of St. Lawrence. The genomic reference and genotyping tools presented here constitute novel resources useful for future research and conservation efforts.

From 2005 to 2010, 136 internal archival tags and 29 pop-up satellite archival tags were used to track juvenile Atlantic bluefin tuna in the Bay of Biscay. Information from 15 pop-up and 5 internal archival tags was recovered. The analysis was adapted for a common treatment of both types of tag data, allowing classification of overwintering distribution patterns, fidelity to the Bay of Biscay feeding area, as well as of horizontal and vertical habitat utilization. Results show substantial geographic dispersion from autumn to spring, with high habitat concentration in the Bay of Biscay during summer, when bluefin tuna inhabit in the mixed layer. Of the individuals that left the Bay of Biscay towards the end of the year, a high percentage returned the next year, suggesting a strong fidelity to the area. Thirty-three percent of records during the overwintering periods revealed residency in the Bay of Biscay and surrounding areas. Half of the fish overwintered in the mid-Atlantic, near the Azores or Madeira Islands, while three (17%) made trans-Atlantic round trips, and one individual travelled to and remained off the eastern coast of the United States. These findings challenge previous assumptions regarding the seasonality and annual movements of bluefin tuna from the Bay of Biscay, while demonstrating extensive spatio-temporal dispersion.

Conventional tagging methods using plastic streamer tags have been the most widely used tool for elucidating fish movements in the last half century. These methods for fish tagging and tracking are error-prone for tracking global fish populations due to the requirement of fishermen to log details of each catch while they are also attempting to perform all of their usual at-sea activities. Under the current method, fishermen are required to remember the time and location of the catch, the size of the fish, and the weight of the fish. In addition, to report a previously tagged fish a fisherman is asked to cut off and keep the tag from the fish. In both cases the fisherman must go back and submit a form with all relevant detail, which often depends on information they try to recall from memory of events earlier in the day or even several days before. The long delay and relative difficulty associated with catch and data entry creates a barrier to data collection and poor data logging. Building on the work of the Olin College of Engineering Intelligent Vehicles Laboratory, Point Road Solutions, LLC, in partnership with the Large Pelagics Research Center (LPRC) and the Pacific Islands Fisheries Group (PIFG) have been developing a more streamlined, automated method for fishermen reporting data from fish tags while at sea. In the new process, a fish is tagged with a modified streamer tag carrying a rice grain-sized RFID chip. A fisherman can scan the tag at or near the moment of capture with a compatible RFID reader, which will transmit the fish's tag information to a personal smartphone pre-installed with our reporting application (Hawaii, or HI Tag App). The application then appends the tag ID with information, e.g., location, date and time, from the phone. From the application, the fisherman has the option to save the form directly as generated, correct or input any missing data (length, weight) or add richer data (e.g., a photo of the fish) before saving the form and storing the data on internal memory. When the application detects a cellular or wireless connection, the data will be immediately uploaded to the Pacific Islands Fisheries Group database. Initial tests conducted off the island of Hawaii (summer 2016) demonstrated that the HITag application greatly improved the process of fish tagging and reporting when compared to conventional manual methods of data logging. However, data entry required heads-down time on the vessel while working with the phone app, a fairly high level of precision when inputting data (on the phone), and regular interactions with the RFID reader between logging events. Fishermen partners who participated in testing deemed this inappropriate, by the and recommended a simpler, more streamlined process compatible with working conditions found on a fishing vessel at sea. To that end, our interdisciplinary team modified the app and also created a new, custom-designed RFID reader designed for use in the kind of challenging environment found on a small working fishing boat at sea. Additional hardware and interface testing was then conducted in the summer of 2017 off Kona, Hawaii, with two fishing vessels, captains and crew members in order to expand testing as well as user feedback. Tag data was uploaded to the Pacific Islands Fisheries Group tag data portal. The team then conducted a post-mission interview and debriefing with our fishermen partners to determine what aspects of the new generation tagging system were improved, and which elements of the system and process they found effective or not useful or expedient.

Walter et al. (1) and Safina (2) raise numerous concerns regarding our study (3). Specifically, they question our conclusions that (i) a majority of spawning occurs outside the Gulf of Mexico, (ii) western North Atlantic bluefin tuna mature earlier than currently estimated, and (iii) additional spawning locations and younger age at maturity mean that the western Atlantic bluefin tuna are less vulnerable to anthropogenic impacts, including exploitation.

Atlantic bluefin tuna are a symbol of both the conflict between preservationist and utilitarian views of top ocean predators, and the struggle to reach international consensus on the management of migratory species. Currently, Atlantic bluefin tuna are managed as an early-maturing eastern stock, which spawns in the Mediterranean Sea, and a late-maturing western stock, which spawns in the Gulf of Mexico. However, electronic tagging studies show that many bluefin tuna, assumed to be of a mature size, do not visit either spawning ground during the spawning season. Whether these fish are spawning in an alternate location, skip-spawning, or not spawning until an older age affects how vulnerable this species is to anthropogenic stressors including exploitation. We use larval collections to demonstrate a bluefin tuna spawning ground in the Slope Sea, between the Gulf Stream and northeast United States continental shelf. We contend that western Atlantic bluefin tuna have a differential spawning migration, with larger individuals spawning in the Gulf of Mexico, and smaller individuals spawning in the Slope Sea. The current life history model, which assumes only Gulf of Mexico spawning, overestimates age at maturity for the western stock. Furthermore, individual tuna occupy both the Slope Sea and Mediterranean Sea in separate years, contrary to the prevailing view that individuals exhibit complete spawning-site fidelity. Overall, this complexity of spawning migrations questions whether there is complete independence in the dynamics of eastern and western Atlantic bluefin tuna and leads to lower estimates of the vulnerability of this species to exploitation and other anthropogenic stressors.

Isla Mujeres, Mexico is home to one of the most well-known aggregations of sailfish. Despite its fisheries prominence, little is known about this sailfish assemblage, or its relationship to other aggregation sites in the western Atlantic. In January 2012, April 2013 and 2014, we deployed 34 popup satellite archival tags on sailfish in order to study their behavior, population connectivity and biophysical interactions. Sailfish were monitored for up to one year, and displayed (1) predominantly shelf associated activity (2) occupancy of the Yucatán Current near Isla Mujeres for up to five months and (3) subsequent dispersals from the Yucatán to productive coastal areas in the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea and along the South American coast. Tagged sailfish occupied a median temperature of 26.4°C (interquartile range, IQR = 2.5 °C; range = 12.3–33.3 °C) and median depth of 4.4 m (IQR = 19 m; range = 0–452 m). Diel activity was present and individuals made distinctive descents before sunrise and sunset. Tracking missions of sufficient duration (~1 year) revealed previously undetected connectivity between western Atlantic sailfish fisheries and pelagic longline catches, and highlighted how fishery independent tagging can improve understanding of sailfish migrations and behavior for assessment and management.

Conventional tagging methods using plastic streamer tags have been the most widely used tool for elucidating fish movements in the last half century. With a very high failure rate, these methods for fish tagging and tracking are unreliable and prohibitively expensive for tracking global fish populations. Under the current method, fishermen are required to remember the time and location of the catch, the size of the fish, and the weight of the fish. In order to report a tagged fish, a fisherman cuts off and keeps the tag from the fish. Later, the fisherman must go back and submit the form using the information they can remember from earlier in the day or even several days ago. The long delay and relative difficulty between catch and data entry creates a barrier to data collection. The Olin College of Engineering Intelligent Vehicles Laboratory, in partnership with The Large Pelagics Research Center, has been developing a new, automated method for reporting data from fish tags. In the proposed process, a fish will be tagged with a modified streamer (“spaghetti”) tag carrying a rice grain RFID chip. A fisherman can scan the tag at or near the moment of capture with a compatible RFID reader, which will transmit the fish's data file to a personal smartphone pre-installed with our reporting application (the HI Tag App). From the application, the fisherman has the option to save the form directly as generated, input any missing data, or add richer data (i.e. a photo of the fish) before saving the form and storing the data on internal memory. When the application has detected a cellular or wireless connection, the data will be immediately uploaded to the Pacific Islands Fisheries Group database. Tests conducted off the island of Hawaii (Summer 2016) demonstrated that the HI Tag application greatly improved the process of fish tagging and reporting with respect to automating the process of collecting, parsing, and transmitting data without requiring supervision from the user. In this way, the reporting can be integrated into the fishing experience itself. Minimizing the barrier between catching and reporting the fish should create a direct relationship between identifying and reporting the tag, thereby improving “catch and release” fishing activities while enabling scientists and researchers access to richer data, collected from the same tag over the entire lifetime of a fish.

Tunas are apex predators in marine food webs that can accumulate mercury (Hg) to high concentrations and provide more Hg (similar to 40%) to the U.S population than any other source. We measured Hg concentrations in 1292 Atlantic bluefin tuna (ABFT, Thunnus thynnus) captured in the Northwest Atlantic from 2004 to 2012. ABFT Hg concentrations and variability increased nonlinearly with length, weight, and age, ranging from 0.25 to 3.15 mg kg(-1), and declined significantly at a rate of 0.018 +/- 0.003 mg kg(-1) per year or 19% over an 8-year period from the 1990s to the early 2000s. Notably, this decrease parallels comparably reduced anthropogenic Hg emission rates in North America and North Atlantic atmospheric Hg concentrations during this period, suggesting that recent efforts to decrease atmospheric Hg loading have rapidly propagated up marine food webs to a commercially important species. This is the first evidence to suggest that emission reduction efforts have resulted in lower Hg concentrations in large, long-lived fish.

In the 1990s, development of the PSAT tag was a major milestone for investigations of Atlantic bluefin tuna. Although early studies tested the technology and described general migration patterns, fisheries scientists now seek analytical approaches to use the spatial and temporal information returned by PSATs in stock assessments. Nonetheless, PSATs remain expensive, have multiple sources of error, and poorly resolved data. The evolving dynamics of hardware and international tagging programs also confound interpretation, delaying progress towards integration of population-level data. There are few PSAT datasets where tagging was performed by the same individuals, using consistent methods, over a long period. From 19972013, we deployed PSAT tags on 568 bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) and 21 Atlantic bigeye (Thunnus obesus). We present details of the tags’ highly variable performance records, and given realized costs of PSATs, advocate for innovations including 1) robust experimental design of tag release, 2) open source software, 3) reduction in size and cost, 4) innovation in capability, 5) integrated data repositories. Major advances in tracking technologies will require multi-disciplinary expertise as well as adequate funding.