This paper presents findings of demonstration of CO2 capture by rotating packed bed absorber using real biomass flue gases. There are two main objectives of the study presented here: (1) performance assessment of pilot scale rotating packed bed CO2 capture absorber with real biomass flue gases (2) the impact of impurities in biomass flue gases on the solvent. The demonstration was carried out at the waste to energy and CO2 capture facilities at the Energy Innovation Centre of the University of Sheffield. Rotating packed bed (RPB) absorber was used to capture CO2 from biomass flue gas generated by a grate boiler. CO2 loadings and solvent concentrations were measured using Mettler Toledo auto-titrator. Particulates content of the flue gas was measured, and particulates were collected for further analysis at the boiler exit and absorber inlet by Electrical Low Pressure Impactor (ELPI (R)+) manufactured by Dekati (R). The particulate samples were analysed by ICP-OES to investigate the impact of metals in the flue gas coming from the biomass on the solvent degradation. Solvent samples were collected and analysed with ICP-MS and Ion Chromatography to quantify build-up of metals and anions in the solvent over time. There is very limited information on this subject in open literature. The short-term tests presented here can serve as a starting point for further longer-term investigations into the impact of biomass flue gas contaminants on the solvent behaviour and the solvent management requirements during CO2 capture from biomass flue gases.

Amine post-combustion capture (PCC) plants must maximise CO2 capture rates to support net-zero targets. This study presents a practical control strategy for achieving up to ~100% added CO2 capture (i.e. the exit CO2 is equivalent to the CO2 in the combustion air), with moderate energy inputs of 3.55-3.65 GJ/tCO2 comparable to 95% capture operation. The method, which efficiently minimises desorber lean loading while closely regulating lean solvent flow to the absorber, is illustrated using process modelling and validated by data from a 75-hour continuous period of ~100% capture in pilot testing at 30 tCO2/day scale. Implementation required only minimal operator training and standard plant instrumentation alongside a flue gas analyser suitable for the resulting ~ 500 ppmv exit CO2 levels. The control approach appears highly transferrable to all commercial amine capture facilities. This paper provides actionable insights for plant design, particularly key instrumentation provisions, and supports permitting guidelines for regulators.

Decarbonisation of critical hard-to-abate industrial sectors such as the iron and steel industry is crucial for meeting climate targets, with chemical absorption carbon capture identified as a key transitional technology. However, its application is hindered by a significant knowledge gap: the absence of publicly available and transparent performance benchmarks using conventional capture systems under elevated CO2 conditions that are representative of industrial process emissions. An experimental performance campaign was conducted on the chemical absorption pilot plant at the Energy Innovation Centre (EIC) in Sheffield, UK. The study established a novel performance baseline across a wide operating envelope for flue gas concentrations ranging from 10 to 25 mol.% CO2, achieving 90% capture efficiency using a 35 wt.% monoethanolamine (MEA) solvent. In addition, a methodology was developed to quantify solvent regeneration energy and its constituent components, complementing a system energy balance for each capture condition. The results provided experimentally validated insight into the relationship between operating conditions, capture performance, and energy demand at elevated CO2 concentrations. The dataset established a robust baseline for conventional packed-bed systems and improved understanding of regeneration energy contributions under industrially relevant conditions. These findings are scalable for application to the design, operation and optimisation of chemical absorption systems in heavy industries and provide a reliable benchmark for future work on advanced solvents, process intensification and scale-up to commercial deployment.

The global commitment to achieving net-zero emissions has highlighted the importance of achieving the highest feasible capture rates in amine post-combustion capture. This will be made significantly easier if rapid solvent loading and concentration measurements are available on commercial post-combustion capture (PCC) plants to allow precise and responsive control by operators. Consequently, this paper presents two complementary techniques that can be employed to provide real-time information on solvent conditions using equipment that is already proven for operation in commercial industrial environments, but with specially developed analysis and data presentation to facilitate informed operational decisions for effective process control to optimise capture rates, energy consumption and other aspects of plant operations. COMCAT (Control, Optimisation, and Measurement in CO2 Absorber Transients): This method utilises solvent density and viscosity measurements to continuously infer online measurements of amine concentration and CO2 loading, based on off-line calibration data. HAPTICS (High Accuracy Pressure Temperature for Inferential Control in Stripping): This technique infers lean loadings and solvent concentration from solvent density, as well as pressure and temperature in the stripper reboiler/sump, assuming the solvent, water vapour and CO2 are in equilibrium.The use of COMCAT and HAPTICS was evaluated during tests on the 1 tCO2/day Amine Capture Plant at the Translational Energy Research Centre (TERC). Results demonstrated that HAPTICS effectively estimates concentration and loading, provided the solvent is at equilibrium and precise pressure and temperature measurements from the kettle reboiler are used. Conversely, COMCAT required additional measures to deliver constant temperatures at the point of viscosity measurement, indicating a need for refinement to improve its feasibility for real-time analysis.

Humanity must decarbonise to prevent climate disaster associated with CO2 and other greenhouse gases. The iron and steel industry contribute significantly to global CO2, with 70 % of integrated steel plant emissions arising from the blast furnace. Green alternatives to blast furnaces are still in development, requiring an intermediate stepping-stone solution to begin the decarbonisation journey. Chemical absorption using amine solvents is a proven carbon capture technology, theoretically ideal for flue gas CO2 concentrations and conditions typical of iron and steel making industrial processes. A representative simulation of the Translational Energy Research Centre (TERC) pilot-scale amine capture plant (ACP) was developed in Aspen Plus V11.0 and identified conditions to minimise the specific reboiler duty (SRD) for representative gases of the iron and steel industry. This work predicted operating conditions and trends when using a monoethanolamine (MEA) solvent concentration of 35 wt% across flue gas CO2 concentrations up to 25 mol% CO2. This work established that optimal L/G and solvent/CO2 ratios for MEA absorption systems can be predicted through knowledge of the flue gas CO2 concentration and the desired capture efficiency of the system alone, without consideration of the volumetric gas flow rate of the system. For flue gas CO2 concentrations of 10 to 25 mol%, optimal L/G ratios of 2.5 to 4.6 and solvent/CO2 ratios of 17.1 to 13.5 were identified to achieve 90 % capture efficiency, with the optimal L/G ratio increasing by approximately 0.7 for each 5 mol% increase of CO2 concentration. Optimal lean solvent loadings ranged from 0.245 to 0.294 molCO2/molMEA, with rich solvent loadings ranging from 0.500 to 0.517 molCO2/molMEA. Solvent capacities proved instrumental in understanding the relationship between optimal solvent flow rate and flue gas CO2 concentration for different capture efficiencies. Temperature profile assessment of absorbing and stripping columns is crucial to optimise the system, as each column exhibits unique operational behaviours, with additional attention given to the cross-heat exchanger. The results illustrate key parameters and considerations for CO2 capture of the iron and steel industry, providing initial setpoint conditions and guidance for optimisation. The developed simulation model can be calibrated to represent other MEA absorption systems.

This paper presents data acquired during tests carried out with the conventional Packed Bed (PB) absorber and compares with those obtained with Rotating Packed Bed (RPB) absorber. The research utilised a one Tonne per day CO2 capture capacity PB capture plant as well as a similar capacity RPB plant, located in the Translational Energy Research Centre (TERC) at the University of Sheffield. A conventional PB stripper was used in all the tests for easy comparison of the two absorbers. Solvent used was 35% Monoethanolamine. Flue gas was generated by dosing CO2 into air. Three sets of experiments were performed using 10%, 15% and 20% CO2 concentrations in the flue gases and varying solvent flow rates; 1. Performance assessment of the PB absorber in combination with PB desorber to achieve 90% capture (baseline) 2. Performance assessment of the RPB absorber in combination with PB desorber under baseline conditions (same stripper conditions as in 1) 3. Performance assessment of the RPB absorber in combination with PB desorber to achieve 90% capture. It was not possible to achieve 90 % capture efficiency under some conditions, due to limitation of the desorber heating system even at high reboiler duties. Optimum capture efficiency with the current design of RPB absorber was found to be similar to 70 %. Data analysis has concluded that current design of the RPB absorber is capable to achieve 90 % capture but at higher reboiler duty than the conventional plant. The limitation seems to be the residence time or insufficient contact between liquid and gas as demonstrated by low rich loadings achieved in the RPB. However, it is important to mention here that, intensification factor defined as the ratio of packed volume of the PB absorber to that of the RPB absorber is similar to 14. A new RPB absorber design is proposed to achieve 90 % capture efficiency under optimum conditions based on the formulae available in open literature. The proposed RPB absorber has twice the packed volume of the current RPB absorber and an intensification factor of 7.

The paper deals with exhaustive process modelling, techno-economic and life cycle assessment (TEA/LCA) of olefin (ethylene and propylene) production through captured CO2 and electrolytic hydrogen. Olefins are important building block chemicals with several applications and carbon capture and utilisation (CCU) can provide a sustainable production route. The proposed system involves direct air capture (DAC) of CO2; proton exchange membrane (PEM) water electrolysis for hydrogen production, methanol synthesis, methanol to olefins (MTO) upgrade, and power generation from off-shore wind turbines. This study proposes a new integrated process as the first attempt to holistically assess a whole CCU assembly aiming at olefins production. Processing modelling has been implemented using the Aspen plus V12.1 and MATLAB R2022a software to solve the mass and energy balances of each unit operation. The modelling results showed a carbon efficiency of 72.3% to ethylene and propylene. In addition, the process is designed and integrated in such a way that no external heat supply is required. A specific energy consumption (SEC) of 150 MJ/kg olefins (41 kWh/kg) has been estimated. A minimum selling price of 3.67 pound per kg of olefins is required for the proposed process to break-even. The sensitivity analysis has revealed that the major cost driver is the cost of electricity. In addition, the life cycle assessment (LCA) has exposed that the proposed synthesis route of olefins has the potential to reduce the global warming potential (GWP) by 47% compared to fossil- based production. The outcomes of this study can be beneficial to engineering conceptual studies, policy makers and contribute new information to the CCU academic community.

The current research critically evaluates the technical, economic, and environmental performance of a Power-to -Liquid (PtL) system for the production of sustainable aviation fuel (SAF). This SAF production system comprises a direct air capture (DAC) unit, an off-shore wind farm, an alkaline electrolyser and a refinery plant (reverse water gas shift coupled with a Fischer-Tropsch reactor). The calculated carbon conversion efficiency, hydrogen con -version efficiency, and Power-to-liquids efficiency are 88 %, 39.16 % and 25.6 %, respectively. The heat inte-gration between the refinery and the DAC unit enhances the system's energy performance, while water integration between the DAC and refinery units and the electrolyser reduces the demand for fresh water. The economic assessment estimates a minimum jet fuel selling price (MJSP) of 5.16 & POUND;/kg. The process is OPEX intensive due to the electricity requirements, while the CAPEX is dominated by the DAC unit. A Well-to-Wake (WtWa) life cycle assessment (LCA) shows that the global warming potential (GWP) equals 21.43 gCO2eq/ MJSAF, and is highly dependent on the upstream emissions of the off-shore wind electricity. Within a 95 % confidence interval, a stochastic Monte Carlo LCA reveals that the GWP of the SAF falls below the UK aviation mandate treshold of 50 % emissions reduction compared to fossil jet fuel. Moreover, the resulting WtWa water footprint is 0.480l/MJSAF, with the refinery's cooling water requirements and the electricity's water footprint to pose as the main contributors. The study concludes with estimating the required monetary value of SAF cer-tificates for different scenarios under the UK SAF mandate guidelines.

Solvent degradation is one of the main obstacles hindering the implementation of CO2 capture in various industries. This research work aims at establishing a fast-track, cost-effective de-risking mechanism to predict and control degradation of capture solvents, thus accelerating industrial uptake of CO2 capture. This is done within the LAUNCH project (ACT 2 program no. 299662), where the goal is to accelerate the development and qualification of novel solvents by developing strategies to control degradation, minimizing solvent loss and, therefore, the environmental impacts of CO2 capture.The small-scale LAUNCH rig (LR2) located at TNO, Netherlands, and the pilot-scale 1TPD CO2 capture plant located at Translational Energy Research Centre (TERC), United Kingdom, are used to develop strategies to accelerate degradation in a manner that leads to representative results for industrially relevant conditions. LR2 has a capture capacity of 25 kgCO2/day, while the significantly larger TERC plant has a capture capacity of 1000 kgCO2/day. The investigation of solvent degradation has been carried out under normal operational conditions and accelerated degradation conditions. This paper presents the results of five test campaigns. For normal operation (Campaign 1) both of the rigs have been operated with cMEA solvent (35 wt%) for approximately 500 hours each using similar operational conditions, so for example absorber L/G ratio and solvent residence times are kept as close as possible. A synthetic flue gas representative of gas turbine flue gas (5% CO2 in air) has been used for direct comparison between the two rigs. For accelerated degradation, four single accelerated degradation strategies have been studied, i.e. elevated stripper temperature, injection of NOx, higher solvent concentration (40 wt% MEA), and intentional rich solvent de-oxygenation by varying oxygen level in the flue gas. Degradation control measures are not included in this publication.Online and offline analysis were used for solvent and gas monitoring during the tests to determine solvent concentration, CO2 loadings, emissions to atmosphere and degradation products. Ammonia emissions were observed to be higher at TERC than LR2. However, degradation products were observed to be higher at LR2. HEPO was observed to be the most abundant degradation product at both the rigs. MEA-Urea and HeGly were also observed in significant amounts but not in a specific order. However, the rest of the degradation products did not show any clear trend with respect to the operational conditions or the experimental setups. Therefore, further investigation is required to better understand the phenomenon behind the unexplained trends in the formation of degradation products.

Biomass gasification technology is evolving and more research through modelling alongside the experimental work needs to be performed. In the past, all the attention has been concentrated on the combustion and reduction stages to be the controlling reactions while the pyrolysis is modelled as an instantaneous process. In this study, a new enhanced model for the gasification process in the downdraft reactor is proposed with a more realistic representation of the pyrolysis stage as a temperature-dependent sequential release of gases. The evolution of the pyrolysis gas, followed by the combustion and reduction reactions, are kinetically controlled in the proposed model which is developed within the Aspen Plus software package. The simulation of the reactor temperature profile and the evolution of the pyrolysis gas is carried out in an integrated MATLAB and Aspen Plus model. The proposed model has been validated against experimental data obtained from the gasification of different woody biomass types and considering a range of scale reactor and power loads. The predicted results are in very good agreement with the experimental data, and therefore the model can be used with confidence to perform a sensitivity analysis to predict the performance of a gasifier at different load levels corresponding to the air flow rate range of 3-10 L/s. As the supplied air flow rate increases, the LHV decreases but the gas yield behaves conversely, and in turn the cold gas efficiency is maintained at a good level of energy conversion at >= 70%. Furthermore, the variation in the biomass moisture content, which is commonly in the range of 5-25 % has a significant effect on the gasification efficiency. Such that biomass that has a high moisture content substantially reduces the CO content and consequently the LHV of the produced gas. Hence, it is important to maintain the moisture content at the lowest level.

In this study, the economic and environmental feasibility of a process configuration based on the Bioenergy and Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) concept is assessed. The research analyses the production of jet fuel from forestry residues-derived syngas via the Fischer-Tropsch (FT) technology. Further, the CO2 removed in the syngas cleaning section is not released to the environment, instead it is permanently sequestrated. The produced Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) has the potential to achieve negative emissions. The present research is a one-of-a kind study for the jet fuel production within the BECCS concept. The process has been modelled within the Aspen Plus and Matlab software to obtain detailed and realistic mass and energy balances. Based on these balances, the technical, economic and environmental parameters have been calculated. Based on a plant that treats 20 dry-t/h of forest residues, 1.91 t/h of jet fuel are produced, while 11.26 t/h of CO2 are permanently stored. The inclusion of the CCS chain in the biorefinery increase the minimum jet fuel selling price from 3.03 & POUND;/kg to 3.27 & POUND;/kg. The LCA results for global warming show a favourable reduction in the BECCS case, in which negative emissions of-121.83 gCO(2)eq/MJ of jet fuel are achieved, while without CCS case exhibits GHG emissions equal to 15.51 gCO(2)eq/MJ; in both cases, the multi-functionality is faced with an energy allocation approach. It is, then, evident the significant environmental advantages of the BECCS process configuration. Nevertheless, financial feasibility can only be attained through the implementation of existing policy schemes and the formulation of new strategies that would reward negative emissions. The application of the UK's policy "Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation " and a hypothetical scheme that rewards negative CO2 emissions, breaks-even the Minimum Jet fuel Selling Price (MJSP) at 1.49 & POUND;/kg for a certificate and carbon price of 0.20 & POUND;/certificate and 246.64 & POUND;/tonne of CO2.

The concentration of an aqueous solution of amine affects the solvent regeneration energy requirement in the Post-combustion CO2 Capture (PCC) process. Therefore, this study investigates the performance of the impact of Selective Exhaust Gas Recirculation (S-EGR) under the influence of 40 wt(%) MEA i.e. 10 % above the benchmark Monoethanolamine (MEA) concentration and at 90 % CO2 capture efficiency due to its potential to reduce the Normalized Specific Reboiler Duty (N-SRD) of the CO2 capture process. The experimental research work was carried out at the United Kingdom Carbon Capture Storage Research Centre - Pilot-scale Advanced CO2 Capture Technology (UKCCSRC-PACT) National Core Facility, UK. The S-EGR was proposed as a means of CO2 enhancement at the inlet of the absorber column to expedite the driving force of CO2 absorption and consequently reduce the N-SRD. CO2 concentrations from 5.0 to 9.9 vol(%) of CO2 were studied. Also, this experiment studied the influence of the Pressurized Hot Water (PHW) inlet temperature at the reboiler on the performance of the CO2 capture process that includes the CO2 recovery rate, CO2 loadings and N-SRD of the Solvent-based CO2 Capture Plant (SCCP) in order to study the variation of N-SRD with varying reboiler thermal inlet temperature at 9.0 vol(%) CO2. It is found that a pilot-scale CO2 capture process under the influence of simulated S-EGR reduces the N-SRD by 25.1 % under the test condition at 6.6 vol(%) CO2. This test condition was observed to have lower N-SRD as with regards to the other tests with different CO2 concentrations, below and above which the N-SRD begins to lose its value. It was also established that within the boundary of the process conditions used in these tests, the impact of the PHW temperature on the CO2 capture efficiency increases with increasing the PHW temperature, but at the detriment of N-SRD, which begins to increase above 125 degrees C despite more CO2 being captured.

With the introduction of more and more renewables into the electricity system, pressure is mounting on the thermal power plants to operate in more flexible ways. In order to capture maximum emissions at the lowest cost, capture plants integrated with the power plants has to follow the operational regimes of the parent power plant. Therefore, capture plants has to be flexible enough to deal with the load variations on the power plants to meat grid demands. A test campaign has been carried out at the PACT 1tpd CO2 capture pilot plant to investigate capture plant flexibility in relation to power plant load variations. Monoethanolamine (40 wt.%) solvent was used to capture CO2 from gas turbine representative flue gases containing around 5% CO2. Pressurised Hot Water (PHW) is used to regenerate the solvent in the reboiler. Four Capture plant flexibility scenarios i.e. start-up, minimum stable generation, no-stripping and over-stripping, are investigated. No-stripping tests were performed to mimic the unavailability of steam for stripping over varied periods of time by stopping PHW flow to the reboiler. The results indicate that Specific Reboiler Duty (SRD) increased by 8.7 % when the PHW stoppage time was 30 min.. Longer the PHW stoppage time, the longer it takes to recover the capture plant to the original steady state and higher the difference between the steady state capture efficiency and the average capture efficiency over the test period. For over-stripping tests, stripper pressure was reduced to 0.4 barg from the original value of 0.5 barg for a varied period of time followed by no-stripping. It was observed that longer the over-stripping period, longer the recovery time. The results indicates that SRD increased by 36 % when the over-stripping time was increased to an hour. In conclusion, it is possible to maintain 90 % overall capture efficiency, if the solvent is over-stripped for a long enough period, but reboiler duty will be increased. Optimisation of the capture process under these scenarios would be required in order to achieve a commercially-optimised balance i.e. minimum increase in SRD costs while achieving a capture efficiency that also minimises CO2 emission costs.

This study investigates the comparative impact of inherently different biomass and coal ashes on the laboratory and pilot scale degradation of 30 wt% aqueous monoethanolamine (MEA), relevant to post-combustion CO2 capture. Thermal and oxidative degradation experiments were carried out at 135 °C and 40 °C respectively with CO2 loading (0.5 molCO2/molMEA), with and without the presence of ash. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) data is provided for the major MEA degradation compounds such as N-(2-hydroxyethyl)formamide (HEF) and N-(2-hydroxyethyl)imidazole (HEI) along with the characterisation of a new MEA oxidative degradation product, N-(2-hydroxyethyl)imidazole-N-oxide (HEINO) which had been previously misassigned. Degradation products were quantified using 1H NMR and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC–MS) to assess the impact of potassium and various ashes from combustion (olive, white wood and two types of coal ash) on the rates of amine degradation. Woody biomass fly ashes were found to reduce the presence of the oxidative degradation products. Both types of coal fly ash and the olive biomass ash were found to enhance the formation the newly identified degradation product, HEINO. Solvent samples taken from a pilot scale facility support these laboratory findings.

Thermal and oxidative degradation of monoethanolamine (MEA) represents a major problem for modern day carbon capture technologies. Here, we report on a series of density functional theory (DFT) calculations investigating the possible chemical pathways leading to the formation of the most commonly observed degradation products. 2-Oxyzolidinone (OZD) can be formed from ring closure reactions of carbamates, carbamic acids, or isocyanates. The latter, itself, formed by dehydration of MEA. N-(2-hydroxethyl) ethylenediamine (HEEDA), 1-(2-hydroxyethyl)-imidazolidone (HEIR), and N-(2-aminoethyl)-N'-(2-hydroxyethyl)-imidazolidin-2-one (AHEIA) are all hypothesized to form favorably from degradation reactions of OZD. MEA can undergo oxidative degradation to form imines and hydroperoxides. This work details the mechanistic steps leading to the formation of these species that could help in the location of new compounds that aim to prevent their formation in future systems. Moreover, the thermochemical data will aid in the construction of a chemical kinetic mechanism to rationalize the rate of formation of all the species in real systems.

Post combustion CO2 capture using amines is one of the most well understood processes. The most widely used and studied solvent for this purpose is 30 % Monoethanolamine (MEA). The main issue with the process is the use of energy for stripping CO2 out of the solvent. It is anticipated that higher concentrations of MEA can capture a higher amount of CO2 and thus reduce energy consumption but may also result in a worsening of the environmental emissions due to potential increase in corrosion and solvent degradation. In order to study the impact of 40 % MEA (as opposed to 30 % MEA) on the capture plant performance, a test campaign was carried out at the Pilot Scale Advanced Capture Technology (PACT) facilities of the UK Carbon Capture and Storage Research Centre (UKCCSRC) using 30 % and 40 % MEA. The absorber (9 m height x 0.3 m dia.) is packed with 28 sections (6.5 m) of Mellapak CC3 structured packing. The absorption column temperature profile is measured by 10 RTDs installed around 48 cm apart along the column length. The performance of the capture plant in terms of reboiler duty, capture efficiency, loading capacity and liquid to gas ratio is evaluated at different operating conditions. It has been found that specific reboiler duty using 40 % MEA drops by up to 14 % as compared to that with 30% MEA under similar test conditions. It has also been observed that the process is very sensitive to reboiler temperature and slight changes in reboiler temperature can have a significant impact on the plant performance. Moreover, similar energy and capture performance can be achieved at different reboiler temperatures with right combination of temperature and pressure in the reboiler/stripper. Corrosion rate was found to be higher with 40 % MEA than 30 % MEA. Solvent degradation rate and solvent carry over has also indicated slightly higher levels for 40 %. Water wash was shown to be effective in recovering most of the MEA from the flue gas.

•Raman spectroscopy is employed for real time monitoring of CO2 capture plant.•A multivariate regression model was used to determine rich and lean CO2 loadings.•Reliability of the Raman predictions are confirmed with the titration measurements.•The Raman predictions models are not affected with accelerated solvent degradation caused by high conc. of SO2.•It is demonstrated that the technology is a step closer towards predictive control of CO2 capture plants.

Carbon capture can be deployed on industrial and thermal power plants to reduce their environmental impact. By integrating this with biomass, a lower carbon intensity fuel, it is possible to achieve net-negative emissions. Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) can be accomplished in a variety of ways, making use of postcombustion, oxy-fuel, and precombustion options. In this technical chapter, these will be discussed, encompassing a broad review of the ongoing, state-of-the-art research. At present, solvent-based postcombustion capture is the most advanced and thus will be the main focus. Key challenges will be highlighted—namely, deposition, particle carryover, and particle enrichment—along with the research avenues that require further investigation to ensure BECCS is deployable, at scale and in an efficient and cost-effective manner. To conclude, evidence-based recommendations are made to inform policy-makers on the regulatory frameworks necessary for the successful integration of BECCS into the future energy system.