The purpose of the present study was to assess the effects of 12 weeks of quadriceps and hamstring strength training on torque levels after a dance exercise and on selected anthropometric parameters. The sample consisted of 22 (ages, 25 +/- 1.3 years) full-time professional ballerinas who were randomly assigned into experimental (n = 12) and control (n = 10) groups. A dance routine designed to cause fatigue within 5 minutes, isokinetic dynamometry, and anthropometric assessments were conducted before and after strength training in both groups. Before strength training, the dance routine resulted in significant reductions of hamstring (p < 0.001) and quadriceps (p < 0.001) peak torques in both subject groups. However, after strength training, only control subjects demonstrated such torque decrements (p < 0.001) after the dance routine. Furthermore, the experimental group revealed greater knee extension (119 vs. 138 N.m; p < 0.001) and flexion (60 vs. 69 N.m; p < 0.001) torques, smaller sum of skinfolds (33.6 vs. 27.8 mm; p < 0.01), more fat-free mass (37.7 vs. 39.4 kg; p < 0.05), but unchanged body mass (p > 0.05) and thigh circumferences (p > 0.05). A negative relationship (p < 0.001) was found between initial strength levels and improvements measured at the end of the 12-week program. These results suggest that supplementary strength training for hamstring and quadriceps muscles is beneficial to professional ballerinas and their dancing; weaker individuals are more likely to benefit from such regimens than their stronger counterparts, whereas increases in thigh-muscle strength do not alter selected aesthetic components.

AIM:The purpose of the present study was to investigate the characteristics and effects of motivational music in British gymnasia. The secondary purpose was to determine whether the characteristics and effects of motivational music were invariant in relation to gender, age, frequency of gymnasium attendance, and the time of day at which exercise participants attended gymnasia.METHODS:Participants (n=532) from 29 David Lloyd Leisure exercise facilities across Britain responded to a questionnaire that was designed to assess music preferences during exercise via 2 open-ended questions and 1 scaled-response item.RESULTS:A content analysis of the questionnaire data yielded 45 analytic properties that were grouped into the following categories: specific music factors, general music factors, music programme factors, delivery factors, televisual factors, personal factors, contextual factors, and psychophysical response factors. The relative incidence of these analytic properties across gender groups (male/female), age groups (16-26 y, 27-34 y, 35-45 y, 46+ y), frequency of attendance groups (low, medium, high), and time of attendance groups (morning, afternoon, evening) was tested by use of chi(2) analyses. Of the personal variables tested, age exerted the greatest influence on musical preference during exercise; older participants expressed a preference for quieter, slower, and generally less overtly stimulative music.CONCLUSION:Music programmes that are prescribed to accompany exercise should be varied in terms of musical idiom and date of release. Such programmes will account for the preferences of different groups of exercise participants that attend gymnasia at different times of the day. Further, the music chosen should be characterised by a strong rhythmical component.

The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of a six-week summer break and of dance preparations at the beginning of the new season following the break, on selected physiological parameters. Seventeen professional ballerinas (mean age 27.2 +/- 1.4 years, mean height 160.2 +/- 6.2 cm) volunteered. They were assessed just before and immediately after their normal summer break, during which very little or no physical work was reported. Eight of these dancers were assessed for a third time, 2-3 months after the end of the break, while they were into preparing for the new season. More specifically, compared to pre-break data, the six-weeks of holiday was followed by a 15% overall increase in the three flexibility tests (from 334 to 386 degrees, P < 0.01), a 14% increase in peak anaerobic power (from 350 to 400 watts; P < 0.01), a 16% increase in leg strength (from 143 to 166 Nm; P < 0.01) (i.e. the mean performance of left and right knee extension added to the mean performance of left and right knee flexion), and a 10% increase in VO2max (from 41.2 to 45.2 ml/kg/min; P < 0.05). The third set of data, 2-3 months after the end of the break, revealed further significant increases by 24% in leg-strength (P < 0.005) and 17% in VO2max (P < 0.01) compared to pre-holiday data. Despite the lack of a control group, the present results fit with the hypothesis of a degree of "burnout" at the end of the season, which negatively affected the mechanisms of fitness and conditioning. A six-week summer-break can act as a restorer of these mechanisms. Two to three months into the new season, positive adaptations to exercise appeared to confirm recovery from the "burnout" or overtraining phenomenon. More research is required on the effects of demanding dance schedules on fitness and conditioning, and how such schedules might adversely affect dance performance and dancers' careers.

OBJECTIVE:To assess reported injuries and cases of overtraining in relation to training and competition cycles, aerobic versus anaerobic sport, and gender.METHODS:A total of 163 elite male and 94 elite female athletes from eight different sports volunteered. They reported 212 musculoskeletal injuries and 38 cases of the overtraining syndrome. These injuries and cases of overtraining were then arranged according to the training or competition cycle in which they occurred, whether the sufferers were male or female athletes, and the metabolic characteristics of the sports in which the injuries and overtraining occurred.RESULTS:The preparation (October to February), precompetition (March to May), and competition (June to August) cycles were associated with 9%, 19%, and 32% of the injuries reported by the men, respectively, and with 8%, 10%, and 22% of the injuries reported by the women, respectively. For the same cycles, cases of overtraining were found to be 15%, 24%, and 35% for the men, respectively, and 4%, 7%, and 15% for the women, respectively. For both men and women, the competition cycle produced significantly more injuries and incidents of overtraining than the preparation and precompetition cycles (p < 0.05 vs p < 0.005). Similarly, precompetition revealed significantly more injuries (p < 0.05) in men, but not in women, compared with the preparation cycle. Also, male athletes reported a significantly higher number of injuries during the precompetition (p < 0.05) and competition (p < 0.01) cycles, and more cases of overtraining during the competition cycle (p < 0.01) than did their female counterparts. No differences were found when the data were arranged according to dominant metabolic characteristics of the sports in which the injuries and overtraining occurred.CONCLUSIONS:Elite athletes are more likely to become injured or overtrained during the precompetition and, especially, competition cycles than in the preparation cycle. Parallel seasonal variations were also found when data were analyzed for aerobic versus anaerobic sport and gender.

Peak torques were studied in 10 elite male overtrained athletes and 10 controls matched for sex, age, sport, and performance level. Isokinetic concentric (CON) and eccentric (ECC) maximal voluntary contractions (MVC) of quadriceps muscle were assessed at the angular velocities of 60 degrees, 120 degrees, and 180 degrees . s(-1) Sustained isometric MVCs were also measured at knee angles of 10 degrees, 45 degrees, and 80 degrees of flexion. Six seconds after the beginning of each isometric MVC, a 40-Hz electrical stimulation was superimposed on the MVC for a further 6 s. The overtrained subjects developed significantly smaller CON peak torques at 180 degrees . s(-1) (P < 0.001), although ECC torques were similar at all three velocities. ECC/CON ratios were higher in the overtrained subjects at 120 degrees . s(-1) (P < 0.01) and 180 degrees . s(-1) (P < 0.001) compared with the controls. Isometric MVCs at 10 degrees and 45 degrees knee flexion were lower in the overtrained at P < 0.01 and P < 0.05, respectively. Also in the overtrained subjects, at knee angle of 10 degrees, the addition of the electrical stimulation to the isometric MVC produced an increase (P < 0.05) in torque levels. It is suggested that impaired central drive may account for the present findings.

Six successful members of the British Women's Lightweight Rowing Team were assessed before and after two-month (1990) and four-month (1991) periods of weight-reduction controlled by reduced caloric intake, while engaged in their normal physical training. Fat free mass (FFM) was calculated from body weight (BW) by utilising total body potassium measurements. Maximal oxygen intake (VO2max), respiratory anaerobic threshold (Tvent), upper body anaerobic peak power (PP) and mean power (MP) outputs, and knee flexor (KF) and extensor (KE) isokinetic peak torques were among the physiological parameters assessed. No statistical differences were noted between the data obtained prior to the two weight-reduction periods, and both periods resulted in lower BW (p < 0.001) and FFM (p < 0.05); approximately 50% of the lost BW was FFM. At the end of the two-month weight-reduction period Tvent (p < 0.02) and KF (p < 0.02) decreased. In contrast, a similar BW loss during the four-month period was associated with higher VO2max (p < 0.01) and PP (p < 0.05) compared with values prior to weight reduction. Comparisons between the percentage changes pre to post BW loss showed that the longer weight-reduction period was associated with significantly improved VO2max (p < 0.01), Tvent (p < 0.005), PP (p < 0.05) and KF (p < 0.05). We conclude: a) the proportion (50%) of weight lost as FFM in the present elite rowers is higher than the suggested optimal figure of 22%, and b) compared to four months, 6-7% of BW loss over two months may adversely influence fitness-related parameters in international lightweight oarswomen.

In this study, anthropometric measurements were carried out on seven British international male épée fencers, using a maximal treadmill running test, a 20-s Wingate-type test, and isokinetic dynamometry. Testing was conducted on two occasions, 5 to 6 months apart, during mid-off-season (preparation) and mid-in-season (competition) periods. Maximal oxygen intake (VO2max) and maximal respiratory exchange ratio (Rmax) were among the parameters obtained from the treadmill test, while peak and mean anaerobic power outputs were measured during a 20-s maximal effort. Knee extensor and flexor muscle forces from both dominant (leading) and non-dominant (trailing) legs were assessed at 1.04, 3.14 and 4.19 rad sec-1. Statistical analyses revealed lower mean VO2max (P < 0.05) and mean Rmax values (P < 0.02) at the in-season assessments compared with off-season. In-season testing also demonstrated significantly lower peak torques for both dominant and non-dominant knee extensors compared with off-season assessments at all velocities (P < 0.05 to P < 0.004). Furthermore, in-season peak torque for the non-dominant leg flexors was lower (P < 0.03) at 4.19 rad sec-1 than off-season. We conclude that current training practices may account for the observed seasonal variations in performance related physiological parameters in fencers.

Serum creatine phosphokinase (CPK), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activities were assayed in 15 healthy but untrained subjects (US) and seven Olympic rowers (OR). Blood samples were obtained at rest, and five and 60 minutes after an ergometer test, during which cardiorespiratory data were obtained. OR demonstrated higher resting CPK (p < 0.001) and AST (p < 0.05) levels than the US. CPK and AST reached their highest levels five minutes after the end of the ergometer test in both groups, whilst peak ALT was reached five and 60 minutes post-test in the US and OR respectively. Fitness parameters and serum enzyme levels were better correlated in the OR group. it is concluded that: (1) exercise temporarily increases the activities of serum AST, ALT, and CPK, (2) increased physical fitness has no bearing on resting serum ALT enzyme levels, although this was not the case with AST and CPK, and (3) exercise duration rather than fitness levels seems to be related to serum CPK, AST, and ALT activities.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether seasonal deterioration in physiological variables could be observed in skiers. Eighteen international male British downhill, free-style, and speed skiers were subjected to a maximal treadmill running test, a 30-s Wingate test, and isokinetic dynamometry at the beginning, middle, and end of the 1989-90 competition season. Maximal oxygen intake (VO2max) and respiratory anaerobic threshold (T vent) were among the parameters measured on the treadmill test, while peak and mean power outputs were measured during the Wingate test. During dynamometry, knee flexors and extensors were bilaterally assessed at 1.04 and 3.14 rad.s-1. Mean VO2max (p < 0.01) and mean T vent (p < 0.05) were lower at the end compared to the beginning, but not compared to the middle of the competition season. The isokinetic test demonstrated lower mean peak torques at 1.04 rad.s-1, for the knee extensors measured at the end of the season, compared with both the start (p < 0.01) and the middle (p < 0.05). Also at 1.04 rad.s-1, knee flexors produced lower torques at the end than the start of the season (p < 0.05). No further statistical differences were found. It was concluded that seasonal deterioration in key physiological variables such as aerobic endurance and muscle strength, can be observed in elite alpine skiers, and that in-season fitness training programmes should take account of this.

Acute exercise of varying severity and corresponding levels of long term competition and training have been found to affect various components of the immune system including lymphocyte subsets, immunoglobulin levels, the mononuclear phagocytic system, polymorphonuclear leukocytes and cytokines, especially IL-1, IL-2, IL-6 and TNF. A tentative trend may be discerned whereby light to moderate exercise may increase immune responsiveness but high-level competition sport, especially if it involves extensive endurance training, may lead to a degree of immunosuppression. Such immune malfunction may be a component of the overtraining syndrome, in which recurrent infections during periods of maximum training or competition stress may form part of the syndrome. Evidence is presented that such overworked muscle may fail to supply adequate glutamine for normal lymphocyte function. Principles of an overtraining treatment strategy are suggested.

No single parameter can disclose the state of physical fitness of elite female competitors.For such indi- viduals, fitness is a composite which varies markedly from one sport to another.It contains aspects of body size and composition, aerobic (general endurance) and anaerobic (local muscular endurance/speed) metabolism, together with aspects of muscle strength.Elements of joint mobility and dynamic balance may also be included.Thus, by obtaining regular laboratory data on key physiological parameters, areas of relative weakness may be detected and trained.In the current context, various compo- nents of fitness, their physiological assessment, and some comparative data are discussed.(V2, max), which correlate reasonably well with performance in endurance events, may rise to

Eight elite junior oarsmen (ER) and sixteen club level rowers (CR) were tested for upper body strength (trunk, arms) and for mean, peak and minimum power outputs using the Double-Arm Anaerobic Work Test (DAAWT). This test is a modified version of the original Wingate test whereby athletes can be tested using trunk and both arms simultaneously. Multiple Discriminant Analysis was used to determine if the DAAWT variables alone were sensitive enough to discriminate between the two groups. Additionally, Pearson's correlation coefficients and ANOVA were employed. Results indicate that mean power and power difference expressed in absolute values (Watts) could successfully classify junior oarsmen into appropriate groups (91.8%, P less than 0.001). In addition, there was a fairly high correlation (r = 0.81) between mean power and strength in the ER. The strongest ER demonstrated the least fatigue while highly significant differences between the groups in most of the other variables examined have also been demonstrated.

Three tests were conducted to assess the effectiveness of three different intensities of exercise both in reducing blood lactic acid (LA) levels and in influencing subjects' heart rate (HR), following a 2000 m race in a rowing boat. In the first and second tests these variables were investigated during a 13 min recovery exercise at 60% and 40% of the preceding maximum rowing speed respectively. In the third test the subjects had a resting recovery. The results include a significant increase (P less than 0.001) in the rate of lactate removal following the 40% recovery compared with the 60% and resting recoveries. The HRs were significantly lower during the last minute of resting recovery compared with 40% and 60% recoveries (P less than 0.001). The same was true when 40% recovery was compared with 60% recovery (P less than 0.001). The present data suggest firstly that 40% of the maximum rowing speed is an appropriate pace for effective LA removal and secondly that, at least for trained rowers, 86% of their maximum HR can be taken as an indication of work of an intensity at or above anaerobic threshold.