High electron mobility transistors (HEMTs) based on AlGaN-GaN hetero-structures are promising for high power, high speed, and high temperature operation. Especially, AlGaN-GaN HEMTs grown on semi-insulating (SI) SiC substrates are the most promising for both military and commercial applications. High performance characteristics from these devices are possible in part due to the presence of high two-dimensional electron gas charge sheet density maintaining a high Hall mobility at the AlGaN barrier-GaN buffer hetero-interface and in part due to high thermal conductivity of the SiC substrates. However, long-term reliability of these devices still remains a major concern because of the large number of traps and defects present both in the bulk as well as at the surface leading to undesirable characteristics including current collapse. We report on the study of traps and defects in two MOCVD-grown structures: Al 0.27 Ga 0.73 N HEMTs on SI SiC substrates and Al 0.27 Ga 0.73 N Schottky diodes on conducting SiC substrates. Our HEMT structures consisting of undoped AlGaN barrier and GaN buffer layers grown on an AlN nucleation layer show a charge sheet density of ∼10 13 /cm 2 and a Hall mobility of ∼1500cm 2 /V·sec. Deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) was employed to study traps in AlGaN Schottky diodes and HEMTs fabricated with different Schottky contacts consisting of Pt/Au and Ni/Au. Focused ion beam was employed to prepare both cross-sectional and plan view TEM samples for defect analysis using a high resolution TEM.

High-power single-mode (SM) and multi-mode (MM) InGaAs-AlGaAs strained quantum well (QW) lasers are critical components for both telecommunications and space satellite communications systems. However, little has been reported on failure modes and degradation mechanisms of high-power SM and MM InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers although it is crucial to understand failure modes and underlying degradation mechanisms in developing these lasers that meet lifetime requirements for space satellite systems, where extremely high reliability of these lasers is required. Our present study addresses the aforementioned issues by performing long-term life-tests followed by failure mode analysis (FMA) and physics of failure investigation. We performed long-term accelerated life-tests on state-of-the-art SM and MM InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers under ACC (automatic current control) mode. Our life-tests have accumulated over 25,000 test hours for SM lasers and over 35,000 test hours for MM lasers. FMA was performed on failed SM lasers using electron beam induced current (EBIC). This technique allowed us to identify failure types by observing dark line defects. All the SM failures we studied showed catastrophic and sudden degradation and all of these failures were bulk failures. Our group previously reported that bulk failure or COBD (catastrophic optical bulk damage) is the dominant failure mode of MM InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers. Since degradation mechanisms responsible for COBD are still not well understood, we also employed other techniques including focused ion beam (FIB) processing and high-resolution TEM to further study dark line defects and dislocations in post-aged lasers. Our long-term life-test results and FMA results are reported.

High-power single-mode (SM) and multi-mode (MM) InGaAs-AlGaAs strained quantum well lasers are critical components for terrestrial and space satellite communications systems. Thus, it is crucial to understand reliability, failure modes, and degradation mechanisms of these lasers for the high-reliability applications. However, a little has been reported on failure modes and degradation mechanisms of state-of-the-art SM and MM InGaAs-AlGaAs strained quantum well (QW) lasers. This study addresses the aforementioned issues by performing long-term life tests, failure mode analysis (FMA), and physics of failure (root causes) investigation. We performed long-term accelerated life tests on SM and MM InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers. Our life tests have accumulated over 25 000 test hours for SM lasers and over 35 000 test hours for MM lasers. FMA was performed on degraded lasers using electron-beam-induced current, electroluminescence, focused ion beam, and high-resolution TEM. All the SM failures showed catastrophic and sudden degradation and all of these failures were bulk failures. Our group previously reported that bulk failure or catastrophic optical bulk damage (COBD) is the dominant failure mode of MM InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers. To the best of our knowledge, we are the first group demonstrating that the dominant failure mode of both SM and MM InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers is bulk failure. Since degradation mechanisms responsible for COBD are still not well understood, we also employed other techniques for the physics of failure investigation including deep level transient spectroscopy, time-resolved electroluminescence, and time-resolved photoluminescence to investigate COBD processes in SM and MM lasers.

High power single-mode (SM) and multi-mode (MM) InGaAs-AlGaAs strained quantum well (QW) lasers are critical components for both telecommunications and potential space satellite communications systems. However, little has been reported on failure modes of state-of-the-art SM InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers although it is crucial to understand failure modes and underlying degradation mechanisms in developing these lasers that meet lifetime requirements for space satellite systems, where extremely high reliability of these lasers is required. Our present study addresses the aforementioned issues by performing long-term lifetests under different test conditions followed by failure mode analysis (FMA) and physics of failure investigation. We performed long-term accelerated life-tests on state-of-the-art SM and MM InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers under ACC (automatic current control) mode. Our life-tests have accumulated over 25,000 test hours for SM lasers and over 35,000 test hours for MM lasers. FMA was performed on failed SM lasers using electron beam induced current (EBIC). This technique allowed us to identify failure types by observing dark line defects. All the SM failures we studied showed catastrophic and sudden degradation and all of these failures were bulk failures. Our group previously reported that bulk failure or COBD (catastrophic optical bulk damage) is the dominant failure mode of MM InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report demonstrating that the dominant failure mode of both SM and MM InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers is the bulk failure. Since degradation mechanisms responsible for COBD are still not well understood, we also employed other techniques including focused ion beam (FIB) processing and high-resolution TEM to further study dark line defects and dislocations in post-aged SM and MM lasers. Our long-term lifetest results and FMA results are reported.

Remarkable progress made in vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELs) emitting at 850 and 980 nm has led them to find an increasing number of applications in high speed data communications as well as in potential space satellite systems. However, little has been reported on reliability and failure modes of InGaAs VCSELs emitting at similar to 980 nm although it is crucial to understand failure modes and underlying degradation mechanisms in developing these VCSELs that exceed lifetime requirements for space missions. The active layer of commercial VCSELs that we studied consisted of two or three InGaAs quantum wells. The laser structures were fabricated into deep mesas followed by a steam oxidation process to form oxide-apertures for current and optical confinements. Our multi-mode VCSELs showed a laser threshold of similar to 0.5 mA at RT. Failures were generated via accelerated life-testing of VCSELs. For the present study, we report on failure mode analysis of degraded oxide-VCSELs using various techniques. We employed nondestructive techniques including electroluminescence (EL), optical beam induced current (OBIC), and electron beam induced current (EBIC) techniques as well as destructive techniques including focused ion beam ( FIB) and high-resolution TEM techniques to study VCSELs that showed different degradation behaviors. Especially, we employed FIB systems to locally remove a portion of top-DBR mirrors of degraded VCSELs, which made it possible for our subsequent EBIC and OBIC techniques to locate damaged areas that were generated as a result of degradation processes and also for our HR-TEM technique to prepare TEM cross sections from damaged areas. Our nondestructive and destructive physical analysis results are reported including defect and structural analysis results from pre-aged VCSELs as well as from degraded VCSELs life-tested under different test conditions.

Reliability and degradation processes in broad-area InGaAs-AlGaAs strained quantum well (QW) lasers are under intensive investigation because these lasers are the key components for fiber lasers and amplifiers that have found both industrial and military applications in recent years. Unlike single-mode lasers that were developed for high reliability telecom applications, broad-area lasers were mainly targeted for applications that require less stringent reliability of the lasers until recently. Especially, the lack of field reliability data is a concern for satellite communication systems where high reliability is required of lasers for long-term duration. For our present study, we addressed this concern by performing long-term life-tests of broad-area InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers and also by studying mechanisms that are responsible for catastrophic degradation of the lasers.

Remarkable progress made in quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) has led them to find an increasing number of applications in remote sensing, chemical sensing, and free space communications, in addition to potential space applications. However, little has been reported on reliability and failure modes of QCLs although it is crucial to understand failure modes and underlying degradation mechanisms in developing QCLs that meet lifetime requirements for space missions. Focused ion beam (FIB) techniques have been employed to investigate failure modes in various types of laser diodes. Our group has also used FIB to study failure modes in single-mode and multi-mode InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers, but few groups have used this technique to investigate failure modes in QCLs. In our study, we report on destructive physical analysis (DPA) of degraded InGaAs-InAlAs QCLs using FIB and high-resolution TEM techniques. The active region of QCLs that we studied consisted of two-23 stage layers of InGaAs-InAlAs separated by a 0.5 mu m thick InP spacer layer for 8.4 mu m QCLs and 30-stage layers of lattice-matched InGaAs-InAlAs heterostructure for 4.7 mu m QCLs. The MOVPE-grown laser structures were fabricated into deep-etched ridge waveguide QCLs. L-I-V-spectral characteristics were measured at RT under pulsed operation. Our 8.4 mu m QCLs with as-cleaved and HR-coated facets showed a laser threshold of 1.7 A and a threshold voltage of 13 V at RT, whereas our 4.7 mu m QCLs without facet coating showed threshold currents of 320 - 400 mA and threshold voltages of 13 - 13.5V. Failures were generated via short-term tests of QCLs. FIB systems were used to study the damage area on the front facet and also to prepare TEM cross sections at different locations along the waveguide for defect and chemical analyses using a HR-TEM. In contrast to the COMD damaged area showing as a blister on the front facet of QW lasers, the damaged area of QCLs was significantly extended into the InP substrate due to a much less absorption of lasing photons in QCLs. Our detailed destructive physical analysis results are reported including defect, structural, and chemical analysis results from degraded QCLs.

Laser diode manufacturers perform accelerated multi-cell lifetests to estimate lifetimes of lasers using an empirical model. Since state-of-the-art laser diodes typically require a long period of latency before they degrade, significant amount of stress is applied to the lasers to generate failures in relatively short test durations. A drawback of this approach is the lack of mean-time-to-failure data under intermediate and low stress conditions, leading to uncertainty in model parameters (especially optical power and current exponent) and potential overestimation of lifetimes at usage conditions. This approach is a concern especially for satellite communication systems where high reliability is required of lasers for long-term duration in the space environment. A number of groups have studied reliability and degradation processes in GaAs-based lasers, but none of these studies have yielded a reliability model based on the physics of failure. The lack of such a model is also a concern for space applications where complete understanding of degradation mechanisms is necessary. Our present study addresses the aforementioned issues by performing long-term lifetests under low stress conditions followed by failure mode analysis (FMA) and physics of failure investigation. We performed low-stress lifetests on both MBE- and MOCVD-grown broad-area InGaAs- AlGaAs strained QW lasers under ACC (automatic current control) mode to study low-stress degradation mechanisms. Our lifetests have accumulated over 36,000 test hours and FMA is performed on failures using our angle polishing technique followed by EL. This technique allows us to identify failure types by observing dark line defects through a window introduced in backside metal contacts. We also investigated degradation mechanisms in MOCVD-grown broad-area InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers using various FMA techniques. Since it is a challenge to control defect densities during the growth of laser structures, we chose to control defect densities by introducing extrinsic point defects to the laser via proton irradiation with different energies and fluences. These lasers were subsequently lifetested to study degradation processes in the lasers with different defect densities and also to study precursor signatures of failures - traps and non-radiative recombination centers (NRCs) in pre- and post-stressed lasers. Lastly, we employed focused ion beam (FIB), electron beam induced current (EBIC), and highresolution TEM (HR-TEM) techniques to further study dark line defects and dislocations in both post-aged and postproton irradiated lasers. We report on our long-term low-stress lifetest results and physics of failure investigation results.

A number of groups have studied reliability and degradation processes in GaAs-based lasers, but none of these studies have yielded a reliability model based on the physics of failure. Unsuccessful development of this model originates from the facts that: (i) defects related phenomena responsible for degradation in GaAs-based lasers are difficult to study due to the lack of suitable non-destructive techniques and (ii) degradation process occurs extremely fast after a long period of latency. Therefore, most of laser diode manufacturers perform accelerated multi-cell lifetests to estimate lifetimes of lasers using an empirical model, but this approach is a concern especially for satellite communication systems where high reliability is required of lasers for long-term duration in the space environment. Since it is a challenge to control defects introduced during the growth of laser structures, we studied degradation processes in broad-area InGaAs-AlGaAs strained quantum well (QW) lasers with intrinsic defects as well as those with defects introduced via proton irradiation. For the present study, we investigated the root causes of catastrophic degradation processes in MOCVD-grown broad-area InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers using various failure mode analysis techniques. A number of lasers were proton irradiated with different energies and fluences. We also studied GaAs double heterostructure (DH) test samples with different amounts of intrinsic defects introduced during MOCVD growth. These samples were proton irradiated as well to introduce additional defects. Deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) and time resolved photoluminescence (TR-PL) techniques were employed to study traps (due to point defects) and non-radiative recombination centers (NRCs) in pre- and post-stressed lasers, respectively. These characteristics were compared with those in pre- and post-proton irradiated lasers and DHs to study the role that defects and NRCs play in catastrophic degradation processes. Lastly, we employed focused ion beam (FIB), electron beam induced current (EBIC), and high resolution TEM (HR-TEM) techniques to study dark line defects and crystal defects in both post-aged and post-proton irradiated lasers.

High performance and cost effective multi-junction III-V solar cells are attractive for satellite applications. High performance multi-junction solar cells are based on a triple-junction design that employs an InGaP top-junction, a GaAs middle-junction, and a bottom-junction consisting of a 1.0 – 1.25 eV-material. The most attractive 1.0 – 1.25 eV-material is the lattice-matched dilute nitride such as InGaAsN(Sb). A record efficiency of 43.5% was achieved from multi-junction solar cells including dilute nitride materials [1]. In addition, cost effective manufacturing of III-V triple-junction solar cells can be achieved by employing full-wafer epitaxial lift-off (ELO) technology, which enables multiple substrate re-usages. We employed time-resolved photoluminescence (TR-PL) techniques to study carrier dynamics in both pre- and post-ELO processed GaAs double heterostructures (DHs) as well as in MOVPE-grown bulk dilute nitride layers lattice matched to GaAs substrates.

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We report on catastrophic degradation in 8.4 μm InGaAs-InAlAs quantum cascade lasers using focused ion beam (FIB) and high-resolution transmission electron microscope (HR-TEM) techniques.

AlGaN-GaN high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs) are most suitable for commercial and military applications requiring high voltage, high power, and high efficiency operation. In recent years, leading AlGaN HEMT manufacturers have reported encouraging reliability of these devices, but their long-term reliability especially in the space environment still remains a major concern. In addition, degradation mechanisms in AlGaN HEMT devices are still not well understood, and a large number of traps and defects present both in the bulk and at the surface lead to undesirable characteristics. Study of reliability and radiation effects of AlGaN-GaN HEMTs is therefore necessary before GaN HEMT technology is successfully employed in satellite communication systems. For the present study, we investigated electrical characteristics of AlGaN-GaN HEMTs and AlGaN Schottky diodes irradiated with protons. We studied two types of MOCVD-grown AlGaN HEMTs on semi-insulating SiC substrates (HEMT-1 and HEMT-2) as well as MOCVD-grown Al0.27Ga 0.73N Schottky diodes on conducting SiC substrates. Our HEMT-1 structure consisted of a GaN cap, AlGaN/AlN barrier, and 2 μm GaN buffer layers. Our HEMT-2 structure consisting of undoped AlGaN barrier and GaN buffer layers grown on an AlN nucleation layer showed a charge sheet density of ~1013/cm2 and a Hall mobility of ~1500 cm2 /V.sec. Our HEMT-1 devices had a Pt-Au Schottky gate length of 0.2 μm, a total gate width of 200-400 μm periphery, and SiNx passivation. Electrical characteristics of AlGaN-GaN HEMTs and AlGaN Schottky diodes were compared before and after they were proton irradiated with different energies and fluences. Current-mode deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) and capacitance-mode DLTS were employed to study pre-proton irradiation trap characteristics in the AlGaN-GaN HEMTs and AlGaN Schottky diodes, respectively. Focused ion beam (FIB) was employed to prepare both cross-sectional and plan view TEM samples for defect analysis using a high resolution TEM. In addition, electrical characteristics of GaAs MESFETs used as reference devices were compared before and after they were proton irradiated.

Reliability and degradation processes in broad-area InGaAs-AlGaAs strained quantum well (QW) lasers are under investigation because these lasers are indispensible as pump lasers for fiber lasers and amplifiers that have found an increasing number of industrial applications in recent years. Extensive efforts by a number of groups to develop InAs-GaAs quantum dot (QD) lasers have recently led to significant improvement in performance characteristics, but due to a short history of commercialization, high power QD lasers lacks studies in reliability and degradation processes. For the present study, we investigated reliability and degradation processes in MOCVD-grown broad-area InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers as well as in MBE-grown broad-area InAs-GaAs QD lasers using various failure mode analysis (FMA) techniques. Dots for the QD lasers were formed via a self-assembly process during MBE growth. We employed two different methods to degrade lasers during accelerated life-testing: commercial life-tester and our newly developed time-resolved electroluminescence (TR-EL) set-up. Our TR-EL set-up allows us to observe formation of a hot spot and subsequent formation and progression of dark spots and dark lines through windowed n-contacts during entire accelerated life-tests. Deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) and time resolved photoluminescence (TR-PL) techniques were employed to study trap characteristics and carrier dynamics in pre- and post-stressed QW and QD lasers to identify the root causes of catastrophic degradation processes in these lasers. We also employed electron beam induced current (EBIC), focused ion beam (FIB), and high resolution TEM to study dark line defects and crystal defects in post-aged QW and QD lasers at different stages of degradation.

High electron mobility transistors (HEMTs) based on AlGaN/GaN hetero-structures are promising for both commercial and military applications that require high power, high voltage, and high temperature operation. Reliability and radiation effects of AlGaN-GaN HEMTs need to be thoroughly studied before they are successfully deployed in potential satellite systems. A few AlGaN HEMT manufacturers have recently reported encouraging reliability, but long-term reliability of these devices under high electric field operation and extreme space environments still remains a major concern. A large number of traps and defects are present in the bulk as well as at the surface, leading to undesirable characteristics including current collapse. The present study is part of our investigation to study traps and defects in the AlGaN HEMT devices using micro-analytical techniques before and after they are life-tested.

Continued improvements in broad-area InGaAs-AlGaAs strained quantum well (QW) lasers have led to unprecedented performance characteristics in these lasers including optical output powers of over 20 W and power conversion efficiencies of over 70% under CW operation. Catastrophic optical mirror damage (COMD) is responsible for failures in (Al)GaAs QW lasers, but InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers with optimized facet passivation predominantly fail by catastrophic optical bulk damage (COBD). Since COBD is relatively a new failure type, it requires physics of failure investigation to understand its root causes and then develop COBD-free lasers for high reliability applications including potential satellite systems. We recently proposed a model for degradation mechanism responsible the COBD process and this paper further investigates the root causes of COBD in the lasers using various failure mode analysis techniques. We investigated reliability and degradation mechanism in MOCVD-grown broad-area InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW single emitters. During entire accelerated life-tests of the lasers we studied, time resolved electroluminescence (TR-EL) techniques were employed to observe formation of a hot spot and subsequent formation and progression of dark spots and dark lines through windowed n-contacts.

We investigated degradation mechanisms responsible for catastrophic optical bulk damage (COBD) in high-power multi-mode InGaAs-AlGaAs strained quantum well (QW) lasers with windowed n-contacts using TR-EL, DLTS, EBIC, and TR-PL techniques.

State-of-the-art broad-area InGaAs-AlGaAs strained quantum well (QW) lasers show an optical output power of over 20 W and a power conversion efficiency of over 70% under CW operation. Unlike broad-area (Al) GaAs QW lasers, broad-area InGaAs strained QW lasers show two failure types including facet catastrophic optical damage (COD) and bulk failure. Optimization of facet passivation processes has led to significant reduction in occurrence of facet COD (or COMD), but bulk failure (or COBD) has received little attention although it is crucial to understand degradation processes responsible for COBD and then develop COBD-free lasers for high reliability applications including potential satellite systems. Our group recently proposed a model for the COBD process and this paper further investigates the root causes of COBD in the broad-area lasers. We performed accelerated life-tests of MOCVD-grown broad-area strained InGaAs-AlGaAs single QW lasers at similar to 975 nm, which predominantly yielded catastrophic bulk failures. We employed various non-destructive techniques to study pre- and post-stressed lasers. Time resolved electroluminescence (TR-EL) was employed to observe formation and progression of dark spots and dark lines through windowed n-contacts during entire life-tests that eventually led to COBD. Deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) was employed to investigate trap characteristics in degraded devices at different stages of degradation to study the role that non-radiative recombination centers (NRCs) play in COBD processes. Time resolved photoluminescence (TR-PL) was employed to measure carrier lifetimes from both undamaged and damaged active areas to find correlation between dark line defects in degraded lasers and non-radiative recombination processes.

We investigate the dependence of electron beam induced current (EBIC) contrast from dark-line defects (DLDs) on temperature and voltage bias in failed and degraded high power quantum well laser diodes (HPLDs). Voltage bias induced contrast variations in EBIC allowed us to make the first observation of what may be the DLD initiation point in a degraded, but not failed, HPLD. Wavelet analysis of temperature and voltage dependent EBIC contrast reveals three distinct regions with different defect properties within the DLD. These results can be correlated to destructive physical analysis and other defect characterization techniques, such as cathodoluminescence and deep-level transient spectroscopy, to provide insight into defect types and failure mechanisms in these devices.