Our aims were to (a) investigate personality change as a function of context (abroad vs. at-home), (b) examine short- (state), medium- (facet), and longer-term (trait) personality variability, and (c) explore linkages between state dynamics and trait change over one year. 180 students from 12 universities were either at-home or living abroad across 32 destinations. Big Five traits were assessed termly; select facet-level traits monthly. Experience sampling was used to capture momentary responses. While sojourners became more agreeable, curious, and less anxious than non-sojourners, widespread change was not observed. Among the modelled personality dynamics indices (mean states, relative SDs, situation contingencies), mean states were the most consistent predictors of trait change, suggesting state-like trait manifestations play a role in personality development.

The increasing integration of digital storybooks into early childhood education, alongside growing linguistic diversity in classrooms, raises important questions about how print and digital texts support language development in children learning English as an Additional Language (EAL). While shared print reading is well established as a context for vocabulary and comprehension development, evidence regarding the educational value of e-books remains mixed, particularly for multilingual learners. Emerging research suggests that learning outcomes may depend less on book medium and more on pedagogical factors, especially adult scaffolding and teaching style. This study examined (a) whether an “ideal”, developmentally appropriate e-book offers advantages over print books for EAL children’s vocabulary development and story comprehension, and (b) how two teaching styles, interactive (dialogic) and performance-based, differentially support receptive vocabulary, expressive vocabulary, and story comprehension. Sixty EAL children aged 3–7 years participated in a 2 (book format: e-book versus print) × 2 (teaching style: interactive versus performance) field experiment conducted in an English-medium school in Cyprus. Children were randomly assigned to one of four conditions and participated in four shared reading sessions involving two storybooks, with each story read twice. Outcomes included receptive and expressive vocabulary, implicit and explicit story comprehension, and standardised language proficiency (PLS-5 UK). Analyses controlled for baseline language ability and age to account for developmental variability across the sample. Book format alone did not significantly affect receptive vocabulary, expressive vocabulary, or overall language proficiency. However, print books significantly outperformed e-books on explicit story comprehension. Teaching style emerged as a stronger predictor of learning outcomes: the interactive approach significantly enhanced expressive vocabulary and implicit story comprehension compared to the performance style, whereas no differences were observed for receptive vocabulary or standardised language scores. No interaction effects were found between book format and teaching style. These findings indicate that for young EAL learners, how stories are taught matters more than which medium is used. Interactive adult scaffolding plays a critical role in supporting expressive language and higher-order comprehension across both print and digital formats. The results highlight the importance of prioritising pedagogical design and teacher mediation when integrating digital storybooks into multilingual early childhood classrooms.

Interpersonal extrinsic dysregulation refers to persistent yet miscalibrated or dysregulating attempts to influence others’ emotional states, and 2) pervasive avoidance of emotionally charged interpersonal situations. We conceptualise interpersonal extrinsic dysregulation as distinct from intrapersonal emotion dysregulation and related interpersonal phenomena (e.g., co-rumination, empathy, and parentification), as it specifically concerns the child's role as a regulator of others’ emotions and the systematic miscalibration or avoidance of this regulatory function. This paper presents an integrative developmental framework that conceptualises interpersonal extrinsic dysregulation as a reciprocal process embedded within emotional exchanges across family, peer, and educational contexts. Drawing on attachment theory, social-cognitive learning theory, and reinforcement learning perspectives, we propose that maladaptive interpersonal regulatory orientations emerge through the cumulative effects of early relational experiences, observational learning, and contingently reinforced emotional behaviours. We further examine how stressors across multiple domains, including family conflict, academic pressures, and broader socio-cultural inequalities, may interact over time to exacerbate dysregulation and undermine psychosocial functioning. Extending this across childhood, we outline how interpersonal extrinsic dysregulation may manifest differently from early to late childhood as regulatory capacities and interpersonal demands evolve. We conclude by identifying key priorities for future research, including the need for longitudinal, multi-informant, and observational approaches to clarify the developmental origins, differentiation, and consequences of interpersonal extrinsic dysregulation. By providing the first integrative framework for this construct, this paper aims to advance understanding of children's interpersonal emotion regulation and its role in socioemotional development. Keywords: emotion dysregulation, interpersonal extrinsic dysregulation, emotion development

Background:In middle childhood (ages 6-12), children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms often experience emotion dysregulation (ED), anger, and social difficulties, including peer problems and maladaptive conflict resolution. Parenting plays a critical role in shaping emotional development; however, how parenting practices interact with ADHD symptoms to influence ED, anger, and social functioning remains underexplored, particularly across cross-national contexts. This study examined these dynamics using longitudinal data from two population-based cohorts in the UK and Zurich. Methods:Data was drawn from two longitudinal cohorts: the UK Millennium Cohort Study (MCS; n = 3147-30,135) and the Zurich Project on Social Development from Childhood to Adulthood (z-proso; n = 1179-1360). In the MCS sample, we ran cross-sectional moderation models to examine whether ADHD symptoms moderated the association between withdrawn/harsh parenting practices and emotion dysregulation, at ages 5 and 7, respectively (H1). The MCS sample also examined whether ADHD symptoms at age 7 moderated the association between withdrawn/harsh parenting practices at age 5 and peer relationship problems at age 11, longitudinally (H2). In the z-proso sample, we ran cross-sectional moderation models to examine whether ADHD symptoms moderated the association between negative/positive parenting and anger, at age 9 (H3). The z-proso sample additionally focused on whether anger at 9 mediates the association between age 7 negative/positive parenting and conflict coping strategies (aggressive/competent) at age 11, longitudinally (H4) Multiple linear regression, moderation, and mediation analyses were performed, adjusting for demographic covariates, such as gender, income (MCS), socio-economic status (z-proso), maternal education (MCS), ethnicity (MCS), and parents' migration background (z-proso). Results:In the MCS, cross-sectionally at age 7, a statistically significant negative interaction was observed, indicating that the association between withdrawn parenting and ED was stronger at lower levels of ADHD symptoms and weakened as ADHD symptoms increased, suggesting that parenting had a greater influence on emotional outcomes when ADHD symptoms were less pronounced. Longitudinally, ADHD symptoms at age 7 amplified the effects of withdrawn parenting at age 5 on peer problems at age 11, highlighting the compounding risk of elevated ADHD symptoms and early parenting challenges on later social functioning. In z-proso, cross-sectionally at age 9, ADHD symptoms did not moderate the effects of positive or negative parenting on anger. Longitudinally, anger at age 9 mediated the association between ADHD symptoms at age 7 and both aggressive and competent conflict coping at age 11, identifying emotional reactivity as a key developmental mechanism linking early ADHD symptoms to later behavioural adjustment. Conclusion:Findings across both cohorts showed that parenting practices and ADHD symptoms interact to influence emotion dysregulation, anger, and social difficulties in middle childhood. Anger emerged as a distinct emotional process, reinforcing its unique role in social challenges. The results highlight the need for culturally sensitive interventions that address both parenting and emotion regulation to improve outcomes for children with ADHD symptoms.

Educators recognise the social benefits of metaverse and virtual world, two similar but different immersive online environments, and are increasingly using them to foster social interaction in the learning process. Although a few systematic reviews have summarised their general applications in education, they vary considerably in the objectives and standards of search and screening processes. To date, no comprehensive comparison has been undertaken between metaverse and virtual world, in terms of their features and boundaries, the social opportunities and learning practices they facilitate, and the associated effects on learner performance in higher education. Addressing this gap, this scoping review examined 10 metaverse studies and 41 virtual world studies. It reveals that (1) metaverse integrates various advanced technologies such as cloud computing and xReality, while virtual world relies more on traditional technological architectures; (2) both environments extend social learning beyond the classroom, but virtual world studies provide more detailed guidance for educators; (3) familiarising students with the operation within both environments is considered useful to reduce cognitive load when undertaking complex learning tasks; (4) educators often conflate learning theories and instructional strategies in relation to practices within both environments; and (5) having social learning activities in both environments generally has positive effects on student performance, though the results are mixed and context-dependent. This review offers valuable insights for educators, researchers, learning designers, product designers, investors, and policymakers seeking to leverage these immersive environments for educational purposes.

Background Foreign language anxiety (FLA) has long been a focus in language learning research, with increasing attention paid to how it changes over time. Recognising FLA as a dynamic construct, this review examines how FLA change has been empirically examined, focusing on temporal frameworks, methodological approaches, and evidence of malleability. Methods Longitudinal observation studies published in English since 1986 were included if they used a within-person design with at least two measurement points. A systematic search was conducted of the ERIC, British Education Index, PsycINFO, Scopus, and Web of Science databases. Study quality and risk of bias were assessed using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT). The findings were narratively synthesised according to temporal design (macro-, meso-, micro-timescales), data collection tools, and analytic approaches. Results Forty-nine studies met the inclusion criteria. Macro-level designs primarily used self-report questionnaires at extended intervals to capture broad developmental trends. Meso- and micro-level studies employed denser sampling, including repeated ratings, idiodynamic procedures, and physiological measures, to reveal short-term fluctuations. Few studies used multi-timescale designs, but the findings reflected both gradual and momentary changes, indicating that FLA can vary across temporal frameworks. While most studies met at least three MMAT criteria, the observed changes in FLA did not differ systematically by study quality. Discussion The findings confirm the dynamic nature of FLA. Its variability across timeframes underscores the need for future research to employ multi-timescale and mixed-methods designs to more effectively capture the complexity of FLA development.

Active communication is an important element of second language (L2) learning, as it contributes to the acquisition of language competence. The prerequisite of L2 use is having the willingness to communicate (WTC). However, previous research tended to conflate WTC and communication behaviour and provided little evidence that WTC and/or communication behaviour actually improve language attainment. This study aims to distinguish between WTC and actual communication behaviour and to analyse how they may influence language performance at both the trait and state levels. The participants included a sample of 31 undergraduate English majors at a Chinese university. Their WTC, communicative behaviour and language performance were measured at both the trait and state levels via self-reports and teacher reports. In addition, group interviews were conducted to gain further insight into the differences between WTC and communication behaviour. The study revealed inconsistencies between state WTC and actual communication behaviour. Compared with WTC, communication behaviour was a better predictor of language performance. This study highlights the importance of distinguishing WTC from actual communication behaviour and constitutes an appeal to language teachers to strive for translating learners’ subjective communication intentions into actual communication behaviour to facilitate their language learning.

Psychology is concerned with both general laws of psychological functioning and with the individual person. The debate surrounding nomothetics and idiographics has been brought up repeatedly, but it has never been completely resolved. We therefore aim to provide conceptual clarity on how the terms "idiographic" and "nomothetic" are used and how conflating these with other concepts negatively impacts research. By differentiating distinct inferential goals and research approaches, we disentangle these confounding concepts. We demonstrate that the nomothetic-idiographic distinction alone is insufficient for categorizing research approaches in personality science. Specifically, we present a categorization of research approaches based on (a) the focal entity (person(s) versus population(s)) and (b) the type of generalization (no vs. entity-specific vs. cross-entity) resulting in a 2 x 3 matrix of research approaches. Finally, we propose a framework of 25 polytomous criteria to extend upon these distinctions. This framework can be mapped onto the generic empirical research process and may help researchers to make decisions in the research process more explicit.

BackgroundRecent research has suggested that emotion dysregulation (ED) is a key mechanism which explains the associations between mental health illnesses, including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and internalising problems, among youth. However, literature reviews have led to mixed and inconclusive findings on the conceptualisations of ED. Specifically, understanding ED in the context of middle childhood, otherwise known as 'the forgotten years', may be crucial, as it serves as a significant developmental stage, where children develop a sense of self and rationalise their emotions. This scoping review aims to address the present challenge of conceptualising ED during middle childhood.MethodsProQuest, PsycINFO, Scopus and Web of Science were searched in October 2024. Articles were included if ED and emotional dysregulation (including positive emotions) were conceptualised, if the paper was a review (i.e., scoping, literature, meta-analysis etc), participants of the target age range (6-12-year) were in the sample, and papers were in English. Studies were excluded if the sample included other age groups, such as infants and pre-schoolers, alongside focussing on other phenomena, such as self-regulation.ResultsThe current scoping review explored the conceptualisations drawn from research studies conducted in the United States, Germany, Austria, France, and Australia. 11 studies were included in this review and two key themes were extrapolated (a) issues with processing emotions (i.e., emotion generation/reactivity) and (b) issues with adopting appropriate emotion regulation strategies and the failure in doing so, leading to issues in attaining goal-directed behaviours.ConclusionsThe findings support the importance of considering how ED should be measured, based on holistic perspectives of the mechanism, alongside clinical screening for emotional deficits at earlier stages of life.

Those experiencing high rapport or strong social connection are more likely to copy each other, or emulate each other's ideas, either consciously or sub-consciously. In this study, we use this phenomenon to examine whether neurotype match or mismatch impacts degree of imitation in a creative task. We asked 71 participants in neurodiverse pairs (including both autistic and non-autistic participants) and single-neurotype pairs (both autistic or both non-autistic), where one participant builds and one observes, to build the tallest possible tower from dried spaghetti and plasticine. We measured the height of each tower and photographed them to create a stimulus set. We then asked independent raters (n = 351, 62 autistic) to rate towers for degree of similarity. We hypothesised that lower similarity scores would be generated for towers created by people in neurodiverse pairs, showing positive innovation. Results showed towers built in the neurodiverse condition had least similarity, whereas towers built in the autistic and non-autistic conditions were significantly more similar. There was no difference in performance (height of tower) based on condition. Our results are the first to examine creativity within single-neurotype and neurodiverse pairs; they indicate that neurological diversity may be beneficial within a group setting. Subsequent research is required to examine how this interacts with divergent communication styles. Lay abstract Neurodivergences such as autism have been previously viewed from a negative, 'deficit', perspective. However, research is beginning to show the benefits of being autistic, and the positive outcomes of neurodiverse interactions. Diversity in the way we think can lead to diversity in the outcomes we produce. In this study, we asked independent raters to compare the similarity of towers built by autistic and non-autistic individuals in single-neurotype (both people were autistic or both people were non-autistic) and neurodiverse (one autistic person and one non-autistic person) pairs, to see whether people would be more or less likely to copy someone who shared their diagnostic status. Our results showed there was the least similarity in design in the neurodiverse pairs; people were less likely to copy the design of the previous builder if that person had a different autistic status to themselves. This could imply people felt more confident in copying someone with a similar neurotype, mirroring results from rapport studies where autistic individuals reported greater rapport with other autistic participants than with non-autistic participants. This also shows there was more evidence of creativity in designs, and innovation from stimulus design (the tower they had watched being built) when the pairs had different autistic diagnoses. This could inform practice and support involving autistic people, encouraging education and care providers to create more diverse methods and designs for support mechanisms, content delivery, and research data collection.

Studies of personality at work have made significant contributions to theory and applied practice in work and organizational settings. This review article proposes that there are also reciprocal influences between core personality science and research on personality in work and organizations, each drawing on insights from the other. Following this tradition, the objective of this article is to review key foundations of research in a way that informs and critically reflects on state-of-the-art evidence in four main themes: (1) conceptualization and structure of personality at work, (2) personality assessment in work settings, (3) personality processes and dynamics at work, and (4) impact of situations on personaliy at work. Critically reflections on key implications, and directions for future research are presented, anticipating how the field may adapt to the changing nature of work and society.

Chinese students are frequently seen as passive learners because of their apparent reluctance to speak, particularly in English classrooms. However, this impression seems to reflect a stereotype which is likely to confound willingness to communicate (WTC) and communication behaviour. In this article we argue for more attention to be paid to individual differences to complement culture-related explanations of differences in WTC. Self-report data on WTC at both trait and state levels and personality characteristics were analysed in relation to L2 language learning performance in a sample of 103 university students. Individual differences in WTC(L1)were found to be strongly related to extraversion; whilst individual differences in WTC(L2)were associated with openness to experience, conscientiousness, and agreeableness, rather than extraversion. Moreover, this study differentiates state WTC(L2)from communication behaviour, and provides evidence for both trait and state WTC(L2)being important predictors of L2 learning performance despite being differently related to personality. Our results overall suggest that exclusively relying on observable communication behaviour is likely to overlook effective antecedences of learning and performance. This study pleads for a more differentiated perspective on WTC and its personality correlates at both trait and state levels. It provides further evidence that WTC is a useful construct in working towards a better understanding of language learning processes.

Background The array of availability of diverse digital reading applications, the mixed results emerging from small-scale experimental studies, as well as the long-standing tradition and range of known positive developmental outcomes gained from adult-child storybook reading warrant an investigation into electronic storybooks (e-books) by performing a meta-analysis, which includes recent studies. Objectives The overall purpose of this meta-analysis is to examine the impact of e-book reading on language and literacy development of young children when compared with traditional reading of print books with or without adult scaffolding in a structured and controlled environment. Methods This meta-analysis includes experimental studies published between 2008 and 2021 with a target population of 3-8 year-olds (n = 2.317). Results and conclusions Analyses indicated a small positive effect for e-books when compared with print books on language and literacy development [g = 0.25; 95% CI = (0.09, 0.42)]. A moderate positive effect was found for vocabulary learning, [g = 0.40; 95% CI = (0.10, 0.69)], especially in relation to expressive vocabulary [g = 0.54; 95% CI = (0.08, 1.00)]. In addition, we found a significant positive correlation between multimedia e-books and the development of code-related skills. However, no significant differences were found between e-book and print book reading in relation to story comprehension. Implications Findings showed that digital features combined with adult scaffolding produced significant positive effects when compared with traditional print book reading with adult support. The findings have practical ramifications, since they can help researchers and educators identify which digital features have the greatest influence on improving children's language and literacy skills when engaging with e-books.

Researchers rely on psychometric principles when trying to gain understanding of unobservable psychological phenomena disconfounded from the methods used. Psychometric models provide us with tools to support this endeavour, but they are agnostic to the meaning researchers intend to attribute to the data. We define method effects as resulting from actions which weaken the psychometric structure of measurement, and argue that solution to this confounding will ultimately rest on testing whether data collected fit a psychometric model based on a substantive theory, rather than a search for a model that best fits the data. We highlight the importance of taking the notions of fundamental measurement seriously by reviewing distinctions between the Rasch measurement model and more generalised 2PL and 3PL IRT models. We then present two lines of research that highlight considerations of making method effects explicit in experimental designs. First, we contrast the use of experimental manipulations to study measurement reactivity during the assessment of metacognitive processes with factor-analytic research of the same. The former suggests differential performance-facilitating and -inhibiting reactivity as a function of other individual differences, whereas factor-analytic research suggests a ubiquitous monotonically predictive confidence factor. Second, we evaluate differential effects of context and source on within-individual variability indices of personality derived from multiple observations, highlighting again the importance of a structured and theoretically grounded observational framework. We conclude by arguing that substantive variables can act as method effects and should be considered at the time of design rather than after the fact, and without compromising measurement ideals.

Willingness to communicate (WTC) used to be studied as a relatively stable, trait-like predisposition; however, recently attention has shifted to the more dynamic, state-like components of WTC. This research investigates variability and stability in state WTC, particularly focusing on within-person variability, which may lead to stable between-person differences, and situational antecedents that can either promote or hinder state WTC in L2 classrooms. To investigate whether, how and why state WTC varies over time, this study used a high-density repeated measurement design and a group of Chinese university students to describe fluctuations in state WTC in English classrooms over one semester. Data related to state WTC and selected situational antecedents were collected through a self-report questionnaire and statistically analysed. It was found that state WTC varied systematically within the person across the semester, and this variability was systematically related to changes in the psychological properties of the learning situations (e.g. teacher and peer support, task-interest, and task-importance). It was also found that within-person variability in state WTC predicted language learning performance, e.g. students whose state WTC increased as a function of perceived task interest tended to achieve higher grades at the end of the semester. This study calls for more attention to be directed at within-person variability in state WTC, and provides novel insights into how relationships between state WTC and its situational antecedents may be investigated within individuals. This work is of interest to researchers and practitioners who aim to enhance L2 learners' state WTC and language learning performance by systematically shaping their situated learning experience.

Negative emotions are related to poor performance in between-person analyses but facilitate performance in within-person analyses, under certain conditions. We examine the effect of situation contingent negative emotions (SCE) on performance, and trait neuroticism as a moderator of that relationship. SCE modelled negative emotions as responses to perceived task challenges using experience sampling data collected over three weeks (2453 responses). Performance was exam scores (n = 83) in an automotive engineering course. SCE predicted performance and this effect was moderated by trait neuroticism. SCE improved performance for students with lower neuroticism.

Trait neuroticism has been associated with a variety of negative outcomes, including mental and physical illnesses, job dissatisfaction, low self-esteem and poor job performance, when tested at the...

The study aimed to investigate the status of within-person state variability in neuroticism and conscientiousness as individual differences constructs by exploring their (a) temporal stability, (b) cross-context consistency, (c) empirical links to selected antecedents, and (d) empirical links to longer term trait variability. Employing a sample of professionals ( N = 346) from Australian organisations, personality state data together with situation appraisals were collected using experience sampling methodology in field and repeatedly in lab-like settings. Data on personality traits, cognitive ability, and motivational mindsets were collected at baseline and after two years. Contingent (situation contingencies) and non-contingent (relative SD) state variability indices were relatively stable over time and across contexts. Only a small number of predictive effects of state variability were observed, and these differed across contexts. Cognitive ability appeared to be associated with state variability under lab-like conditions. There was limited evidence of links between short-term state and long-term trait variability, except for a small effect for neuroticism. Some evidence of positive manifold was found for non-contingent variability. Systematic efforts are required to further elucidate the complex pattern of results regarding the antecedents, correlates and outcomes of individual differences in state variability.

Ascertaining the value of a study abroad experience on facilitating language development has long been a goal of Second Language Acquisition scholars. There is currently a plethora of studies regarding the topic, yet, despite this, the evidence remains inconclusive and contradictory. This systematic review evaluates the impact of study abroad among undergraduate language learners in both Europe and beyond on a range of linguistic outcomes compared to remaining in domestic instruction. Studies that used a randomised controlled trial design, or a quasi-experimental design which achieved baseline equivalence, were included in an in-depth review as they offer the best available evidence on impact. Nine electronic databases were searched using a series of keywords. Articles were screened using pre-specified inclusion criteria. Forty studies were identified for a mapping synthesis, with seven publications being carried forward to full data extraction and quality appraisal. The synthesis of the evidence indicated that sojourning can facilitate the development of global proficiency and oral fluency, while oral and written accuracy demonstrated less change. The available evidence is discussed in relation to policy and practice, together with the limitations of this review.

The study of dynamic within-person personality responses using repeated measurement designs is emerging as a new focus in the study of personality at work, and offers great potential to build on and extend the large body of work on traits conducted by organizational researchers. In this chapter we provide a definition and discussion of dynamic personality and how it is both related to and differentiated from the trait approach in measurement and modelling. Both within-person and between-person variability in personality are considered worthy of study to gain insights into nomothetic principles. The cognitive-affective personality systems (CAPS) model provides a framework for modelling the underlying structure of dynamic personality responses as functions of situations, and provides an integration of the stable (between-person, nomothetic) and dynamic (within-person, idiographic and nomothetic) approaches to personality. This goes beyond the more fixed between-person approaches at contextualizing personality that capture context-related dynamics at the group level, such as trait activation theory and frame-of-reference studies. There are many big questions worthy of programs of research in this emerging field, which are the focus of the section “Challenges and future directions: where to from here?”