Understanding the link between tree root architecture and organic carbon dynamics is critical for enhancing carbon sequestration in semi-arid regions. This study, conducted from 2017 to 2019 in central India, evaluated the root structure and carbon sequestration potential of three tree species: Neolamarckia cadamba (Kadam), Leucaena leucocephala (Subabul), and Melia dubia (Malabar neem). The species exhibited distinct root architectures: Subabul had a symmetric, sparse root system; Kadam had moderately dense roots; and Malabar neem developed a compact and massive root system. The highest root density was recorded in the 0–30 cm topsoil layer near the collar region. Primary roots initially grew vertically (0.15–0.30 m), then extended horizontally, with Malabar neem showing the widest lateral spread (up to 4.4 m). Secondary roots displayed greater angular spread than tertiary and quaternary roots. Lateral root pruning, recommended after the first two years, could enhance resource use efficiency and improve understory crop performance in agroforestry systems. Malabar neem demonstrated significantly higher carbon sequestration potential, storing 25.64 Mg C ha-¹ at three years—2.96 to 3.86 times greater than Subabul (8.62 Mg C ha-¹) and Kadam (6.62 Mg C ha-¹). Annual sequestration rates ranged from 2.20 to 2.87 Mg C ha-¹ yr-¹. Aboveground biomass contributed 80.4–84.3% of total carbon stocks, with belowground biomass contributing 15.7–19.6%. At a planting density of 500 trees ha-¹, Malabar neem achieved the highest CO2-equivalent sequestration (94.09 Mg CO2e ha-¹). These findings highlight Malabar neem-based agroforestry as a viable strategy for restoring degraded lands while improving carbon storage and climate resilience in semi-arid ecosystems.

Integrated farming system (IFS) aims to diversify the agricultural landscapes by incorporating different components to meet the multifarious needs of the burgeoning population. The present study was undertaken to understand the impact of different cropping systems on soil organic carbon (SOC) stock, aggregate distribution, and aggregate associated organic carbon (AAOC) in 2-IFS models of varying sizes (0.4 and 0.8 ha) established during 2008–2009. After 10 years of the study, the fodder system registered the greatest TOC and carbon stocks across IFS models, with surface soil (0–15 cm) accumulating 17 and 13% higher TOC and C stock, respectively, in 0.4 and 0.8 ha models. In 0–15 cm, macroaggregates (Ma) represented the highest proportion (75–76%) in both models. Among cropping systems, the fodder system recorded the highest large macroaggregates in both IFS models. Within 0–30 cm depth, small macroaggregates are mostly found in the perennial system (fodder, guava+turmeric, and lemon intercropping system), indicating the potential to improve the aggregate stability over the seasonal (shorter duration) system. In general, micro aggregate (Mi) fraction was pre-dominant in sub-surface soil (17.35%). The maximum AAOC was found in Ma compared to Mi fractions, with approximately 67 and 63% of total carbon associated with Ma in 0.4 and 0.8 ha IFS models, respectively. Interestingly, the 0.8 ha IFS model had higher TOC (~11%) and carbon stock (~12%) than the 0.4 ha model, but AAOC did not show a similar result, indicating the influence of cropping systems on AAOC. The study indicated that the fodder-based production system had better performance in terms of soil physical health and increased aggregate stability and content of soil carbon. This is indicative of the advantages of perennial-based systems over seasonal- or annual-based cropping systems for soil sustainability in Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains.

Abstract Land use significantly influenced in soil organic carbon (SOC) and its intricate dynamics, subsequently influencing various soil biochemical processes, as well as soil microbial and metabolic indices. This investigation aimed effect of different agroforestry systems (AFS) with diverse intercrops on soil carbon and pools and microbial properties up to 30 cm soil depth. The total organic carbon (TOC) content across the AFS in surface soils (0-15cm) ranged 8.75 to 11.45 g kg− 1. Poplar based AFS had 10.8 to 23.6% higher (p < 0.05) TOC while lowest in Semal (8.75g kg− 1). TOC decreased − 19 to -30.3% in subsurface (15-30cm) compared to surface soils. Very labile carbon (F1), labile carbon (F2), less labile carbon (F3) and non-labile carbon (F4) constituted 38.5, 15.3, 20.3 and 25.9% of TOC in surface soils and 34.1, 14.3, 22.1 and 29.4% in subsurface soils. Poplar based AFS had higher Basal Respiration (25.2%) while lowest (0.475 µg CO2-C g− 1 h− 1) in Mango. Poplar recorded higher Carbon Management Index in surface (209.73%) and subsurface (178.5%). Principal component analysis has shown the first two PCs represented 82.69% of the total variation wherein TOC was the most influential factor in PC1 and microbial metabolic quotient (qCO2) in PC2. Overall, Poplar based AFS outperformed among AFSs. So, therefore, we suggest, promotion of poplar-based systems to restore soil carbon and microbial properties as well as overall soil health while ensuring nutritional security of the Indo-Gangetic plains of Samastipur.

A study was undertaken in the Vaishali district of Bihar, India, in 2020 to assess the effect of various agroforestry systems (AFS) on the distribution of different pools of soil organic carbon (fraction I - very labile, fraction II - labile, fraction III - less labile and fraction IV - non-labile), carbon stocking and soil microbial activity. The mean (0-45 cm) total organic carbon (TOC) in dif-ferent AFS ranged from 5.55 to 6.64 Mg C ha-1, with the highest under poplar-based AFS (PB-AFS). Across the AFS studied, the C stocks (0-45 cm) varied from 36.24 (mango-based AFS) to 41.43 Mg C ha-1 (PB-AFS). Overall, the magnitude of C fractions showed the order: fraction I > fraction IV > fraction III > fraction II. Sig-nificantly higher soil microbial biomass carbon was recorded under PB-AFS (219.36 mu g g-1) in 0-15 cm depth. Basal respiration was also the highest under PB-AFS (0.54 mu g CO2-C g-1 h-1), followed by TB-AFS (0.50 mu g CO2-C g-1 h-1) in 0-15 cm depth. Principal component analysis result showed that PC 1 and PC 2 represented about 97% of the total variation. TOC and active carbon pool had the maximum loading in PC 1, while microbial metabolic quotient and bulk density had the maximum value in PC 2.

In India, the per capita availability of water is projected to be 1465 m3 and 1235 m3 by the years 2025 and 2050, respectively, and hence, India would be a water-stressed country as per the United Nations’ standard of less than 1700 m3 per capita water availability. India is predominantly an agricultural-dominant country. Rainfed agriculture in the country contributes 40% of food grain production and supports half of the human population and two-thirds of the livestock population. The country has 15 different agro-climatic zones, and each agro-climatic region has its own constraints of water availability and management along with the potential for their optimum utilization. Such situations warrant the formulation of regional-level strategies. Efforts were made to integrate and evaluate the feasibility of water harvesting and its utilization at twelve different sites representing six different agro-climatic conditions spanning pan India. It was found that water harvesting through tanks/ponds is a feasible approach and can increase the crop production as well as diversification. The results reveal that the range of crop diversification index increased from 0.49–0.85 to 0.65–0.98; the crop productivity index increased from 0.28–0.66 to 0.66–0.90; the cultivated land utilization index increased from 0.05–0.69 to 0.34–0.84; and the crop water productivity index increased from 0.20–0.51 to 0.56–0.96, among other production and diversification indices, due to additional water availability through rainwater harvesting intervention. Moreover, the gross return increased from INR 43,768–704,356 to INR 220,840–1,469,108 ha−1, representing a 108 to 400% increase in the returns due to the availability of water. The findings of this study suggest that the water harvesting in small ponds/tanks is economical and feasible, requires less technological intervention, and increases crop diversification in all the studied agro-climatic conditions, and hence, the same needs to be encouraged in the rainfed areas of the country.

The imposition of pre-sowing treatment has been playing a crucial role for enhancing the germination percentage of the forest species and its succeeding growth stages. On this contention, a preliminary study was conducted to understand the impact of different pre-sowing treatments on Aquilaria agallocha Lam. (Agarwood) and its early growth behaviour. In this present study, the seeds were subjected to six different pre-sowing treatments. Among the pre-sowing treatments, soaking in water at room temperature for 24 hrs (T3) has resulted the maximum germination percentage (55.25%) as compared to other counterparts. On an average, there was an increase of 49%, 47%, 38%, 40% and 49% of germination percentage, germination capacity, germination energy, peak value and mean daily germination respectively in T3 over control (T6). Similarly, the early seedling growth of the agarwood was also influenced by imposition of different pre-sowing treatments. And all the seedling growth parameters viz., shoot length (cm), root length (cm), seedling length (cm) and seedling vigour index were recorded maximum in T3 as compared to rest of the treatments.

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices are becoming increasingly important due to their better adaptability to harsh climatic conditions (in general) and the unpredictability of monsoons in India (in particular). Conventional rice cultivation (e.g., PTR) involves intensive tilling followed by intensive puddling in standing water that destroys the soil aggregation and depletes carbon pools. Therefore, alternative crop establishment methods need to be devised for the sustainability of system productivity, and the suitabilities of potential oilseeds and pulses need to be tested for cropping intensification in rice-fallow regions. Hence, an ongoing experiment (implemented in 2016) was evaluated to identify the appropriate CSA management practices in restoring soil C and physical health under diversified cropping systems in the rice-fallow system of eastern India. Six tillage and crop establishment methods along with residue management were kept as the main plots [zero-till-direct-seeded rice (ZTDSR), conventional-till-DSR (CT-DSR), puddled transplanted rice (PTR), ZTDSR with rice residue retentions (ZTDSR(R+)), CTDSR with rice residue retention (CTDSRR+), PTR with rice residue retention (PTRR+)] while five winter/post-rainy crops (oilseeds and pulses) were raised in a subplot. In the ZTDSR(R+) production system, soil macro-aggregate (%), macro-aggregate-associated C, MWD, and GMD of aggregates increased by 60.1, 71.3, 42.1, and 17.1%, respectively, in comparison to conventional tillage practices (PTR). The carbon management index (CMI) was 58% more in the ZTDSR(R+) production system compared to PTR. Among the winter crops, chickpeas recorded higher values of soil structural indices and C content. In the PTR production system, system productivity, in terms of rice equivalent yield, was comparable to ZTDSR(R+). ZT with residue retention in rice followed by post-rainy/winter pulses led to higher C content and structural stability of the soil. Thus, CSA management practices can improve the crop productivity as well as soil health of rice-fallow production systems of eastern India and comparable agroecotypes of South Asia.

A field experiment was conducted at Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Central Agroforestry Research India, Jhansi (U.P.), India, to assess the effect of land use on soil organic carbon stocks (SOCs), microbial biomass carbon (MBC) and basal respiration by selecting sixteen land uses including one cropland system. The results revealed that agroforestry system (AFS) performed better as compared to other land use systems. Acacia nilotica-based AFS has the highest SOCs (23.39 Mg ha−1), followed by Dalbergia sissoo-based AFS in 0–15 cm soil depth. Among the pure tree plantation, Jatropha curcas observed highest SOCs (15.78 Mg ha−1) in 0–15 cm soil depth. However, silvopasture system is able to build up (20.88 Mg ha−1) more SOCs than pure tree plantation systems. Soil MBC was also recorded significantly higher under Acacia nilotica-based AFS (764.61 µg g−1) in 0–15 cm depth, while the basal respiration was highest under silvopasture system irrespective of SOCs and MBC. Overall, our study results indicated that the SOC in the different land use systems is not only influenced by difference in age and density of tree but also largely controlled by different management practices adopted. The principal component analysis (PCA) data have shown that two major components (PC1 and PC2) have represented 70.90% of the total variation. And among the parameters, BR followed by soil organic carbon (SOC) was found to be the most sensitive factor while assessing the impact of land use changes on soil quality. We also found that SOCs, microbial biomass carbon and basal respiration have a strong correlation between each other.

Abstract With ever-increasing population of the world, which has now reached 7.75 billion, it has become a major challenge for world to meet the sustainable development goal (SDG) of zero hunger via meeting demand for food, feed, and other agricultural products especially in developing countries. Therefore, improving and sustaining agricultural crops yield without posing negative impact on environment should be the ultimate goal to meet food and nutritional requirement around the world. Application of chemical fertilizers although has increased the crop productivity but simultaneously has posed serious threat to human and environmental health. Therefore, biofertilizers from microorganisms have potential to replace these chemical fertilizers in sustaining agricultural productivity and maintaining environmental health. Moreover biofertilizers are easy to use and less expensive than chemical fertilizers. Biofertilizers includes one or more beneficial microbes that facilitate better nutrient uptake, greater production of growth hormone and beneficial phytochemicals in crops leading to higher quantity as well quality crop production. Nitrogen-fixing microbes, phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB), sulfur-solubilizing bacteria (SSB), potassium-solubilizing bacteria (KSB), and vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM) etc. are already being utilized in combination for making biofertilizers formulations for enhancing crop production but on small scale. Thus, large scale exploitation of agriculturally important microbes for sustaining agricultural productivity is the need of the hour. This chapter highlights the types, quality control measures, inoculation techniques of microbial biofertilizers; their role in sustaining agricultural productionand challenges as well as ways forward to promote the use of biofertilizers in order to achieve sustainable agricultural production to meet out the SDG of zero hunger.

Organic farming plays an important role sustainable agriculture production with quality and environmental safety. Vegetable crops as one of the main component of agricultural sector, is providing nutritional security as general and source for livelihood in many farming communities especially the small marginal holders across the world. This chapter deals with organic production practices of vegetable. Nutritional quality of organic vegetables, nutrient management options for organic vegetables, disease and pest management in organic vegetables are discussed in details. In addition soil health management in organic vegetables, soil biological properties are also depicted. The chapter has discussed about Impact of organic vegetable farming on Environment. How Organic farming can enhance rural vitality, health risk reduction employment opportunity, ecotourism, are documented based on the recent studies.

Aim: To evaluate the level of virulence of different Xoo isolates/ pathotypes of Eastern and North-eastern India and to identify the suitable donors in rice cultivars having various R-gene combination against virulent Xoo races of Bacterial Blight disease of rice. Methodology: Thirty six Xoo isolates were collected from different places of Eastern and North-eastern India and genetic diversity/ similarity was examined by genotyping of pathotypes using JEL1/JEL2 markers. The 34 Indica rice cultivars carrying different R-gene combination were selected and grown in net house and inoculated artificially with Xoo inoculants from these races/ isolates bacterial of blight disease. Results: The selected 36 Xoo isolates of Eastern and North-eastern India were grouped into seven different isolates/ races based on their genetic diversity using JEL1/JEL2 markers. Among 34 Indica rice cultivars, three or more R-gene combination (xa5 + xa13 + Xa21 and/or Xa4 + xa5 + xa13 + Xa21) cultivars exhibited highly resistant as compared to cultivars with single and double gene combination cultivars against most of the Xoo isolates/ races. Interpretation: The cultivars may determine different level of resistance due to complementary effect of inheritance of suitable R-gene combination. Identified donors may be used for rice resistance breeding programme for Eastern and North-eastern India.

Challenges to the lives of human being and other living communities by changing climate due to increase in greenhouse gases (GHGs) concentration, majority of carbon dioxide (CO2) are leading in a miserable way. There calls a diversified land-use system to face the alarming issue of crop productivity as well as to challenge the effect of climate changes (CCs). Moreover, the releasing of CO2 from the soil due to intensive cultivation on limited land resources without considering its future land degradation is also adding another challenge to farming community. In this context, the practice of agroforestry has been realized and shown promising land use system. Agroforestry has started gaining attention across the globe and the aspect of carbon sequestration (CS) potential recognized a big asset in terms of CC mitigation approach. The practices of agroforestry help to improve the soil physico-chemical and biological properties by continuous addition of litter in the soil surface. Since, soil organic carbon (SOC) is having the largest contribution in carbon pool among the terrestrial ecosystem, which is estimated to be over 1550 Pg C at 1m soil depth. Considering the potential of soil ecosystem to store carbon, it is attracting considerable attention to curb the issues of CC in near future. The practices of agroforestry involving the minimal disturbance of soil and continuous cover of litter helps in stabilizing the soil organic and making the room for vast CS opportunities in the soil. 120It is believed that other ecological, biological, and edaphic factors, several social factors such as adoption of different management practices like application of fertilizers, irrigation supply, application of pesticides, herbicides, etc. could also affect the SOC sequestration potential under agroforestry system (AFs) by influencing the soil aggregates stability. In this context, several studies conducted in different places of world, however, their reports have shown large variation in estimating the CS potential in AFs across the world due to non-homogeneous estimation.

Mechanized farming for vegetable production has evolved as an integral part of commercial agriculture during the past few decades.As a first step towards mechanized farming the use of tractors in Indian agriculture has increased by 528% during the period 1990-91 to 2018-19 from 0.15 to 0.8 million/year.Undoubtedly, use of such technologies has made vegetable as well as foodgrain production a profitable venture by easing land preparation, weed management and other intercultural operations, crop harvesting, etc.However, their continuous use in production fields has resulted in the substantial compaction of soil along the wheel lines of tractors and similar heavy machinery.Reports indicate a significant yield loss (13-73%) owing to soil compaction because it restricts root penetrance into the soil, limiting nutrient and water uptake by the plants, and also potential water stagnation, which can limit the normal activities of respiring roots leading to retarded plant growth and root diseases.In this context, control traffic farming (CTF), which aims to reduce the area affected by the operation of heavy machinery that otherwise lead to soil compaction, brings a substantial value to the current global focus of sustainable and precision farming.CTF attempts to restrict the spatial movement of machinery wheels to fewer operation lanes during and across production cycles for a long time and allows specifically the undisturbed areas of soil for crop production.Research confirms a significant improvement in crop yield in different crop production systems worldwide and reduction in methane emission due to soil absorption (372-2100%) compared to random traffic farming.In this article, we discuss the advantages of CTF in terms of root growth, nutrient mobilization and energy efficiency of the vegetable production system, and also argue on its scope in the Indian context, given the situation that no or only a few studies have been reported from the country.

Soil organic carbon (SOC) content has influences on the sustainability and stability of any agroforestry system. In this present study, SOC and SOC stocks distribution in soil (0-30 cm) in five predominant agroforestry systems (agri-horticultural, agri-horti-silvicultural, agri-silvicultural, horti-pastoral and homegarden) practiced in Naysari, Gujarat were examined. The result revealed that homegarden system had low bulk density (1.36 Mg m(-3)) and highest soil organic carbon content (0.78 %) as compared to other agroforestry systems. Overall, the soil organic carbon stocks (0-30 cm) in different agroforestry systems ranged from 23.75 to 29.58 Mg ha(-1). The top soil layer (0-15 cm) of homegarden system had the highest (15.82 Mg ha(-1)) soil organic carbon stocks (SOCS), followed by agri-horti-silvicultural system (14.56 Mg ha(-1)) and the agri-silvicultural system recorded the lowest SOCS of 12.32 Mg ha(-1). Overall, there was a decline of 8.57 % SOCS spatially from the top to the sub-soil layer.

A preliminary survey was conducted during 2015–16 in Navsari district, Gujarat, India to document dominant agroforestry systems practiced by farmers of this region. Five dominant agroforestry systems were in practice i.e. agrihorticultural (AH), homegarden (HG), agri-silvi-horticultural (ASH), agri-silvicultural (AS) and horti-pastoral (HP). A total of 11 different trees and 22 agricultural crop species were documented from these systems, in which all the 11 tree species and 14 agricultural crops were grown under HG system. In case of herb/weedy species, a total of 30 plants were recorded from different agroforestry systems and the most extensively distributed plants were belonging to the family Amaranthaceae (Alternanthera sessilis and Amaranthus viridis). Saccharum officinarum under AS system and Cajanus cajan under HG system gave maximum above and belowground crop biomass, respectively. Oryza sativa during kharif season gave higher economic yield than crops grown during rabi season (Dolichos lablab and Cicer arietinum) in AH system. In HG system, Cymbopogon spp. recorded highest economic yield. Similarly, in ASH system, Solanum lycopersicum gave more yield than Abelmoschus esculentus and Solanum melongena.