© 2019 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Understanding the distribution of biodiversity across the Earth is one of the most challenging questions in biology. Much research has been directed at explaining the species latitudinal pattern showing that communities are richer in tropical areas; however, despite decades of research, a general consensus has not yet emerged. In addition, global biodiversity patterns are being rapidly altered by human activities. Here, we aim to describe large-scale patterns of species richness and diversity in terrestrial vertebrate scavenger (carrion-consuming) assemblages, which provide key ecosystem functions and services. We used a worldwide dataset comprising 43 sites, where vertebrate scavenger assemblages were identified using 2,485 carcasses monitored between 1991 and 2018. First, we evaluated how scavenger richness (number of species) and diversity (Shannon diversity index) varied among seasons (cold vs. warm, wet vs. dry). Then, we studied the potential effects of human impact and a set of macroecological variables related to climatic conditions on the scavenger assemblages. Vertebrate scavenger richness ranged from species-poor to species rich assemblages (4–30 species). Both scavenger richness and diversity also showed some seasonal variation. However, in general, climatic variables did not drive latitudinal patterns, as scavenger richness and diversity were not affected by temperature or rainfall. Rainfall seasonality slightly increased the number of species in the community, but its effect was weak. Instead, the human impact index included in our study was the main predictor of scavenger richness. Scavenger assemblages in highly human-impacted areas sustained the smallest number of scavenger species, suggesting human activity may be overriding other macroecological processes in shaping scavenger communities. Our results highlight the effect of human impact at a global scale. As species-rich assemblages tend to be more functional, we warn about possible reductions in ecosystem functions and the services provided by scavengers in human-dominated landscapes in the Anthropocene.

Translocations are an important tool for wildlife conservation, although progress in the field of reintroduction biology has been hindered by the ad hoc and opportunistic nature of many translocations. We used an experimental translocation to elucidate the role of raccoon roundworm (Baylisascaris procyonis) and inbreeding depression in the decline of the Allegheny woodrat (Neotoma magister), an endangered species. We translocated woodrats from genetically diverse populations in the core of the species range to 4 previously occupied sites (reintroductions) and 2 sites supporting genetically depauperate populations (reinforcements) in Indiana (U.S.A.). In 2 reintroduction sites and 1 reinforcement site, we distributed anthelmintic baits to passively deworm raccoons and reduce the risk of woodrat exposure to roundworms. The remaining sites served as controls. We used raccoon latrine surveys and fecal flotation to monitor temporal variability in roundworm prevalence and effect of treatment. We used live trapping and microsatellite genotyping to monitor the demographic and genetic response of translocated populations over the following 54 months. At the conclusion of the study, 4 of 6 translocations were successfully maintaining abundance through local recruitment. The distribution of anthelmintic baits reduced levels of roundworm contamination, but levels of contamination were also low in 2 of 3 control sites. Reintroductions failed at control sites, one of which was due to high roundworm exposure. The other failed control reintroduction was likely attributable to demographic stochasticity and limited reproductive potential following initial mortality within the first 4 months. In both control and treatment reinforcements, increases in both allelic richness and heterozygosity were accompanied by increases in abundance, which is suggestive of genetic rescue. Our results demonstrate that mitigation of roundworm exposure through the distribution of anthelmintic baits can facilitate woodrat recovery and that diversity within genetically depauperate populations can be restored through the introduction of a limited number of individuals.

Nanofluidics is a technology that involves the transport of very small liquid samples, on the order of micro- or pico-liters, confined to nanoscale structures. Scientists at the Savannah River National Laboratory (SRNL) in collaboration with the University of South Carolina are investigating a new measurement technique using nanofluidics for fast and easy verification of the presence of special nuclear material (SNM) in aqueous solutions. Research is specifically geared toward developing small-footprint high sensitivity lab-on-a-chip devices for the detection and separation of plutonium. It also laid the groundwork for developing ultra-sensitive sensors using in structural health monitoring system for in situ, noninterrupted detection of the leaching and migration of radionuclides outside the cementitious barriers for nuclear waste storage facilities. This innovative method has promise for the nuclear industry's processing technologies, environmental protection, and safeguards.

Twenty-one polymorphic microsatellite markers were developed for the Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana). The number of alleles ranged from two to 13 and observed heterozygosities ranged from 0.464 to 0.964. Significant heterozygote deficiencies were observed at three loci and null alleles were detected at five loci. Evidence for gametic disequilibrium was observed between three sets of paired loci after a sequential Bonferroni correction was applied. These markers will enable us to investigate the mating tactics, movement behaviour and social structure of Virginia opossum populations inhabiting fragmented agricultural landscapes.

Fourteen polymorphic microsatellite loci were developed for the raccoon tick ( Ixodes texanus ). Three multiplexed panels comprising the loci were developed and 50 ticks collected from two infected raccoons ( Procyon lotor ) were genotyped. The number of alleles per locus ranged from five to 22, and single locus heterozygosities ranged from 0.46 to 0.94. Future research will further our understanding of I. texanus biology and help in elucidating the effects of life‐history variation on parasite population genetic structure, using I. texanus as a model organism.

For North American river otters (Lontra canadensis) in Louisiana, statewide distribution, availability of aquatic habitats, and the absence of physical barriers to dispersal might suggest that they exist as a large, panmictic population. However, the wide variety of habitat types in this region, and the dynamic nature of these habitats over time, could potentially structure river otter populations in accordance with cryptic landscape features. Recently developed landscape genetic models offer a spatially explicit approach that could be useful in identifying potential barriers to the movement of river otters through the dynamic aquatic landscape of Louisiana. We used georeferenced multilocus microsatellite genotypes in spatially implicit (STRUCTURE) and spatially explicit (GENELAND) models to characterize patterns of landscape genetic structure. All models identified 3 subpopulations of river otters in Louisiana, corresponding to Inland, Atchafalaya River, and Mississippi River regions. Variation in breeding seasonality, brought about by variation in prey abundance between inland and coastal populations, may have contributed to genetic differentiation among populations. It is also possible that the genetic discontinuities we observed indicate a correlation between otter distribution and access to freshwater. Regardless of the mechanism, it is likely that any genetic differentiation among subpopulations is exacerbated by relatively poor dispersal.

Extensive translocation of wildlife throughout North America has led to concerns regarding taxonomic integrity for a number of species. Often, multiple subspecies or variants were translocated into a common habitat or region, creating the opportunity for hybridization to occur. This issue is of particular concern to managers of wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo), a species in which considerable mixing of subspecies has occurred. We aim to quantify the subspecific status and degree of hybridization of individuals within an introduced population of Merriam's turkeys (M. g. merriami) in the Davis Mountains of Texas, USA, and within nearby Rio Grande turkey populations (M. g. intermedia). We used data from the Merriam's source population in New Mexico, USA, as a baseline reference for the genetic characteristics of the Merriam's subspecies. Nineteen years following the introduction event, microsatellite data indicate that the genetic integrity of the introduced population of Merriam's turkeys in the Davis Mountains Preserve has been eroded by both immigration from and hybridization with nearby Rio Grande populations. Data from the mitochondrial control region allow for further characterization of hybrid individuals and indicate that most hybrids were the result of immigrant Rio Grande males mating with resident Merriam's females. Our results attribute to the potential importance of hybridization in wildlife species and suggest that hybridization can be a rapid process capable of drastically altering the evolutionary integrity of animals in a region.

The endangered Sonoran pronghom (Antilocapra americana sonoriensis) consists of only 2 small populations, 1 in Arizona and 1 in Mexico. Mitochondrial DNA sequence data and 5 microsatellite loci were used to compare levels of genetic diversity and differentiation between the 2 Sonoran pronghom populations and between this subspecies and other selected pronghorn populations, both proximate and distant to the Sonoran pronghorn's current range. The data support a history of recent isolation of Sonoran pronghorn populations from those in Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. Loss of genetic diversity due to bottlenecks and drift has been severe in both populations of the Sonoran pronghorn, but is most pronounced in the Arizona population. These results are discussed in terms of conservation management strategies.

Genetic analyses on noninvasively collected samples have revolutionized how populations are monitored. Most noninvasive monitoring studies have used hair or scat for individual identification of elusive mammals, but here we utilize naturally shed feathers. The Eastern imperial eagle (EIE) is a species of conservation concern throughout Central Asia and, like most raptors, EIEs are inherently challenging to study because adults are difficult to capture and band using conventional techniques. Over 6 years, we noninvasively collected hundreds of adult feathers and directly sampled EIE chicks at a national nature reserve in Kazakhstan. All samples were genetically sexed and genotyped at a suite of microsatellite loci. Genetically profiled adult feathers identified and monitored the presence of individual eagles over time, enabling us to address a variety of issues related to the biology, demography, and conservation of EIEs. Specifically, we characterized (i) the genetic mating system, (ii) relatedness among mated pairs, (iii) chick sex ratios, and (iv) annual turnover in an adult breeding population. We show that EIEs are genetically monogamous and furthermore, there is no apparent relatedness‐based system of mate choice (e.g. inbreeding avoidance). Results indicate that annual adult EIE survivorship (84%) is lower than expected for a long‐lived raptor, but initial analyses suggest the current reproductive rate at our study site is sufficient to maintain a stable breeding population. The pristine habitat at our study site supports an EIE population that is probably the most demographically robust in the world; thus, our results caution that populations in marginal habitats may not be self‐sustaining.

Abstract In 1969, 17 pronghorn were reintroduced onto Umatilla Army Base in Oregon with no subsequent translocations or immigration into this fully enclosed area. We explored the genetic signature this event left on the population using a combination of microsatellite genotypes and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequencing data of this population. We compared the present day Umatilla herd to its source population and to a southeastern Oregon population. We found the reintroduced population had sharply lower genetic diversity compared to its source despite its rapid increase in population size following the initial founding event. It is likely the observed loss of diversity and the significant differentiation observed between the Umatilla herd and its source was a function of the low number of founders and stochastic losses of diversity in subsequent generations. We observed significant haplotypic and genotypic differentiation between the reintroduced population and its source (GST = 0.063, FST = 0.078, p < 0.001) that was approximately 3.5 times that found between the source and the southeastern population (GST = 0.018, FST = 0.021, p < 0.001). Moreover, 2 rare alleles in the source population were found in high frequency in the translocated population. The founding effect, stochastic shifts in allele frequencies each generation, restricted gene flow, and variance in the segregation of alleles related to a polygamous mating system have contributed to the significant differentiation observed between the Umatilla herd and its source. The results of this study can be applied directly to the management of ongoing translocation activities within Oregon.

Vertebrate scavengers and decomposers compete for animal carcasses in all temperate and tropical ecosystems. We examined the influence of carcass size, forest type, and air temperature on the fate of rodent carcasses at the Savannah River Site, South Carolina, USA. Three hundred rodent carcasses were placed at random locations in forested habitats and scavengers were identified using remote photography. Seventeen species of vertebrates removed 104 of 300 (35%) rodent carcasses over a year. Raccoons (Procyon lotor (Linnaeus, 1758)) and Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana Kerr, 1792) scavenged most frequently. For scavenged carcasses, the mean time to carcass removal was 2.58 days after placement. Carcass acquisition by scavengers and decomposers was influenced moderately by forest type and carcass size, although ambient air temperature considerably influenced the fate of carcasses. Vertebrates removed fewer carcasses as temperatures increased: only 28 of 144 (19%) carcasses were scavenged when temperatures exceeded 17 °C. The temporal pattern of carcass removal by vertebrates, however, did not vary with temperature. Consistent rates of carcass removal by vertebrates across the year and increased activity by insects during warm weather led to elevated levels of decomposition during summer months. This study confirms the complexity and dynamic nature of competitive relationships among scavengers and decomposers.

Carrion use by terrestrial vertebrates is much more prevalent than conventional theory implies, and, rather than a curiosity of animal behavior, is a key ecological process that must be accounted for. Human aversion to rotted substances and difficulties associated with identifying scavenged material in studies of food habits have contributed to the relative lack of information concerning scavenging behavior in vertebrates. Several lines of evidence, however, suggest that carrion resources are more extensively used by vertebrates than has been widely assumed: 1) a substantial number of animals die from causes other than predation and become available to scavengers, 2) a wide variety of vertebrate scavengers, rather than microbes or arthropods, consume most available carcasses, and 3) intense competition exists between vertebrate scavengers and decomposers, especially in warm climates. Although vultures are best adapted to use carrion, nearly all vertebrate predators are also scavengers to some extent. The costs and benefits associated with carrion use influences the evolution of scavenging behavior in vertebrates, resulting in a continuum of facultative scavengers that use carrion to varying degrees. The realized usage of carrion by a vertebrate species is influenced by the speed and efficiency with which it forages, its visual and olfactory abilities, and its capacity for detoxifying products of decomposition. A deeper understanding of carrion use by facultative scavengers will improve our knowledge of community and ecosystem processes, especially the flow of energy through food webs.

Genetic diversity was examined in pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) to assess relationships among Arizona populations sharing common reintroduction or translocation sources. Ninety-seven Arizona pronghorn were analyzed for mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplotype variation via restriction enzyme analysis and four composite haplotypes were revealed. Comparative analyses of Arizona pronghorn populations that shared founders from Montana, Wyoming, Texas, or central Arizona were performed. In addition, analyses of differences in haplotype frequency were performed specifically for populations in the northwestern and southeastern sections of the state because these populations are thought to be composed entirely of reintroduced pronghorn. Tests for differences in haplotype frequencies among populations sharing founders were performed using Monte Carlo simulation. Populations which received translocated animals from Texas, Wyoming, or Montana showed no significant variability in haplotype frequencies. Haplotype frequencies were significantly different among populations that received reintroductions from central Arizona only when a population which also received pronghorn from Montana, was included in analyses. Overall, populations in southeastern Arizona differed significantly from each other in haplotype frequencies. However, populations within southeastern Arizona with common reintroduction sources (e.g., Texas or central Arizona only) were not different in haplotype frequencies. Populations sampled in northwestern Arizona were not different from each other in haplotype frequencies despite the wide array of sources (central Arizona, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and Utah) used to restock that region. Our results suggest that whenever possible, genetic data should be used to plan future reintroductions of pronghorn in Arizona. PROCEEDINGS PRONGHORN ANTELOPE WORKSHOP 19:45-54

Genetic differences within and among naturally occurring populations of wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) were characterized across five subspecies' historical ranges using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analysis, microsatellite loci and mitochondrial control region sequencing. Current subspecific designations based on morphological traits were generally supported by these analyses, with the exception of the eastern (M. g. silvestris) and Florida (M. g. osceola) subspecies, which consistently formed a single unit. The Gould's subspecies was both the most genetically divergent and the least genetically diverse of the subspecies. These genetic patterns were consistent with current and historical patterns of habitat continuity. Merriam's populations showed a positive association between genetic and geographical distance, Rio Grande populations showed a weaker association and the eastern populations showed none, suggesting differing demographic forces at work in these subspecies. We recommend managing turkeys to maintain subspecies integrity, while recognizing the importance of maintaining regional population structure that may reflect important adaptive variation.

We describe the isolation, development and application of seven microsatellite loci in the eastern wild turkey, Meleagris gallopavo silvestris, as well as their amplification and levels of polymorphism in the domestic turkey. The number of alleles per locus ranged from 5 to 15 and average heterozygosity was high for almost all loci. Domestic turkeys showed significantly reduced numbers of alleles per locus and overall heterozygosities when compared to eastern wild turkeys. The high variability in these markers should provide the level of resolution required to continue studies of wild turkey population genetics.

The London strain of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) was created by interbreeding three other strains of rainbow trout and therefore was expected to have higher levels of genetic variation than other strains of rainbow trout. We examined 129 London strain rainbow trout from Indiana by allozyme electrophoresis to assess levels of genetic variation and to examine the relationship between the London strain and other hatchery strains. When using the same loci to compare with other hatchery strains the London strain showed levels of genetic variation within the range of other hatchery strains: mean heterozygosity of 0.053 (0.031-0.099), 1.27 (1.20-1.60) alleles per locus and 20.0% (20.0-40.0%) of the loci were polymorphic. The London strain is somewhat distinct from other hatchery strains (D=0.009-0.072), in part because of the high frequency of the sIDHP*40 allele.

The restoration of wildlife populations to historically occupied ranges is an important goal of modern wildlife management. In Arizona, USA, efforts have begun to reintroduce the Gould's subspecies of wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo mexicana) into its former range in the southeastern part of the state. However, individuals or descendants of the Merriam's subspecies (M. g. merriami) may remain in the reintroduction area from earlier releases and could potentially interbreed with reintroduced Gould's turkeys. We used 3 fundamentally different genetic markers to determine whether the wild turkeys currently occupying the Huachuca Mountains in southeastern Arizona were descended From the Gould's turkeys translocated there during the 1980s, or whether interbreeding had occurred with descendants of Merriam's turkeys from a translocation during 1950. We found consistent genetic differences between relict Populations of the Merriam's turkey in Arizona and the Gould's turkey in northern Mexico. The Huachuca Mountains wild turkey population consistently grouped with the relict Gould's populations and showed no evidence of interbreeding with the Merriam's subspecies. In addition, we found evidence that the Huachuca Mountains population was less genetically diverse than the relict populations, and we recommend that this population be monitored for signs of inbreeding depression. The molecular markers developed for this study are important tools for future management of wild turkeys.