Plant protection products (PPP) are used to protect apples from pests and diseases and to maintain high yields and fruit quality. Alternatively, non-chemical plant protection measures can be applied to reduce the use and ecotoxicological risks of PPP. However, additional materials, energy or labor are needed, which can have an impact on the environmental or economic performance. To investigate possible trade-offs, this multi-criteria analysis examined different apple production systems based on exemplary crop protection strategies in Switzerland. One integrated crop protection strategy complying with the Swiss Proof of Ecological Performance (PEP2018) was used as a reference, and three exemplary strategies were compared to this reference. The integrated «PPP Reduced» strategy assumed a minimal use of synthetic PPPs in combination with a range of alternative plant protection measures to avoid yield losses. The conventional «High yield» strategy assumed maximum yields with minimal restrictions on the use of synthetic PPPs and fertilizer. Finally, the «Organic» strategy represented typical organic apple production without the use of synthetic PPPs. To compare the performance of these strategies, 13 indicators were calculated, covering four aspects. PPP use was analyzed with the treatment frequency index, local ecotoxicological risks for next-to-field habitats were modeled with SYNOPS, global environmental impacts of 1 kg apple were analyzed with life cycle assessment (LCA) and economic impact on farms was assessed with a full-cost calculation. Compared to the «PEP2018» strategy, the «PPP Reduced» strategy performed much better in terms of ecotoxicological risks and biodiversity, but was not profitable due to high investments resulting in a negative farmer's hourly wage. The ecotoxicological risks were comparable between the «PEP2018» and «High yield» strategies, with the latter performing much worse in terms of biodiversity and global warming potential. Despite the high capital and labor input, the «High yield» strategy was much better in terms of resource use and farmer's hourly wage. The «Organic» strategy had the largest impact (per kg of apples) on most global environmental indicators, but performed much better on ecotoxicological risks and also on farmer's hourly wage. The results of this study show that reducing the use of PPP and the associated risks in apple orchard without environmental or economic compromises is challenging. None of the strategies examined performed better than the other strategies in all indicators assessed. However, this approach could contribute to identify and design more sustainable crop protection systems in apple production.

Das Schweizer Parlament hat beschlossen, dass die Umweltrisiken von Pflanzenschutzmitteln (PSM) bis 2027 im Vergleich zu den Referenzjahren 2012-2015 halbiert werden sollen. Um dieses Ziel uberprufen zu konnen, sollen geeignete Risikoindikatoren entwickelt werden, die basierend auf Verkaufsmengen von PSM die poten-tiellen Risiken fur Organismen in Oberflachengewassern und naturnahen Lebensraumen sowie die Belastung des Grundwassers abbilden konnen. Hier wird nun die Berechnungsmethode fur diese Risikoindikatoren vor-gestellt. Erstmals konnen Veranderungen im PSM-Ver-kauf zusammen mit den Auswirkungen von produkt-spezifischen und allgemeinen Minderungsmassnahmen auf Ebene Schweiz dargestellt werden. Fur die drei Umweltkompartimente Oberflachengewasser, naturnahe Lebensraume sowie Grundwasser wird je ein Risikoindi-kator berechnet. Zur Berechnung der Risikoindikatoren wird fur jeden Wirkstoff eine Behandelte Flache ermittelt und mit einem Risikoscore sowie einem Faktor fur die Risikominderung multipliziert. Die Behandelte Flache ergibt sich aus den wirkstoffspezifischen jahrlichen Ver- kaufsmengen und der durchschnittlichen Aufwandmen-ge des Wirkstoffs pro Flache (in der Landwirtschaft). Der Risikoscore wird anhand einer normierten Anwendung pro Wirkstoff und Umweltkompartiment berechnet ba-sierend auf den Stoffeigenschaften, welche den Trans-port in das jeweilige Umweltkompartiment bestimmen. Bei den Risikoindikatoren 'Oberflachengewasser >> und 'Naturnahe Lebensraume >> wird zudem die Toxizitat fur Organismen im entsprechenden Umweltkomparti-ment einbezogen. Die Risikominderung berucksichtigt die durch die Zulassung verfugten produktspezifischen Risikominderungsmassnahmen, allgemeine Massnahmen (wie z.B. OLN-Vorschriften) und deren Umsetzung. Die Risikoindikatoren erlauben es also, fur wichtige Umwelt-kompartimente zeitliche Trends in den Risiken von PSM aufzuzeigen und bilden sowohl Veranderungen in den erfassten PSM-Verkaufsmengen ab als auch die Wirkung von Minderungsmassnahmen.

Since 2009, the use of plant-protection products (PPPs) in field crops has been recorded annually as part of Switzerland's agroenvironmental monitoring scheme. This information was used to calculate the amount of active substances applied per crop from 2009 to 2018, and to determine the quantity of active substances used in field crops throughout Switzerland, based on the cultivated areas specific to each crop. The risk potential posed to surface waters by this use of PPPs was analysed using the SYNOPS model. Over this period, the use of herbicides and fungicides in field crops declined steadily. Regarding insecticides, paraffin oil - an active substance used on potato crops - accounted for the bulk of applications. Without considering paraffin oil, the amount of insecticides used has also declined since 2012. The trend of the risk potential was constant for herbicides, downward for fungicides and upward for insecticides. Where the effects of the use restrictions for aquatic risk reduction imposed by the authorisation were also taken into account, a sometimes distinct reduction in all risk potentials was observed. Over the investigated period, there was a change in the spectrum of the PPP active substances available and used in field crops. It was found that some active substances, although used in smaller quantities, can be risk-dominant, while others, though used in larger amounts, have only slight effects on the risk potential for surface waters. The study shows that in field crops, the risk potential for surface waters changed over the course of the investigated period, mainly owing to the choice of PPP active substances and the increasing number of imposed use restrictions for reducing aquatic risks. An analysis of the risk in special crops requires a larger informational basis. Broader coverage, improved accessibility and increasing digitalisation in agriculture could contribute to the creation of a representative data pool for all crops in future.

Les produits phytosanitaires (PPh) protegent les cultures contre les adventices (a l’aide d’herbicides), les maladies fongiques (a l’aide de fongicides) et les insectes nuisibles (a l’aide d’insecticides). Cependant, ils peuvent egalement entrainer des effets secondaires indesirables sur les hommes, les animaux et l’environnement. Une procedure d’homologation approfondie et des mesures de politique agricole visent a reduire a la fois la quantite utilisee et les risques potentiels des PPh. Agroscope a analyse en detail l’evolution de l’utilisation des PPh dans les grandes cultures et du potentiel de risque pour les eaux de surface au cours des dix dernieres annees.

L'utilisation de produits phytosanitaires (PPS) en Suisse est recensee depuis 2009 d'apres les enregistrements faits par quelque 300 exploitants dans leur carnet des champs. A partir de cette base de donnees, on calcule la frequence des utilisations, les quantites utilisees et les PPS choisis. Au cours de la periode de l'etude, de 2009 a 2012, il a ete utilise plus de PPS et plus frequemment en cultures fruitieres, sur vigne, pomme de terre et betterave sucriere que sur mais, ble et colza. Il existe donc de grandes differences dans l'utilisation de PPS selon les cultures. Dans de nombreuses cultures, les fongicides dominent mais les matieres actives utilisees different d'une culture a l'autre. Durant les quatre annees etudiees, le choix des matieres actives principales pour chaque culture concernee a peu evolue. Les insecticides en cultures de colza font cependant exception; on utilise moins de pyrethrinoides a cause des problemes de resistance. On constate une grande variabilite dans l'utilisation de PPS sur differentes parcelles d'une meme culture. Des recherches plus approfondies sur les causes de cette variabilite pourraient mettre en evidence des strategies de reduction des applications de PPS. Parallelement a la presentation des chiffres-cles se rapportant a l'utilisation des PPS, le developpement d'un indicateur qui tient compte de l'ecotoxicite et de la degradabilite des matieres actives utilisees pour quantifier l'impact de leur utilisation sur l'environnement est en cours.

Since 2009 agricultural data are collected within the framework of the project Farm Accountancy Data Network Agro-Environmental Indicators (AEI FADN). The indicator "pesticide usage" consists of key figures characterizing the practice of chemical plant protection. The crop specific number of spray rounds quantifies both the total number of times a crop has been treated, and also the number of treatments according to the major pesticide group. While there is a substantial regional variability, the mean number of spray rounds seems relatively stable. Differences to earlier surveys are minor, except in the case of oilseed rape. Although the survey currently covers only 1% of the area used for crop production in Switzerland, there is a fair agreement between the projected usage and the sales in the case of frequently used active ingredients. The estimates are uncertain for orchards and vines. In the case of vegetables there are not sufficient data available. In order to assess the potential environmental impacts, an ecotoxicological risk indicator based on the pesticide usage data is currently developed.

Birds affected by pesticides? Risk assessment and monitoring Prior to authorization, the side-effects of pesticides on the environment must be evaluated. The Ecotoxicology group at ACW assesses by means of models the potential risks of pesticide uses to plants and animals, including birds. Since a model can never incorporate the whole complexity of reality, uncertainty remains. With the help of passive or active monitoring after authorization, additional information can be gathered about safety or danger of a pesticide to birds. Even if monitoring studies have their limits, they are an important complement to the risk assessment based on models. They help to understand the risks of pesticides for birds, to identify unexpected problems and to define measures for risk mitigation.

Avant toute homologation, l�impact et les effets secondaires des produits phytosanitaires (PP) sur l�environnement doivent etre evalues. A la Station federale de recherche Agroscope Changins-Wadenswil ACW, le groupe d�ecotoxicologie etudie a l�aide de modeles les risques eventuels presentes par les PP pour les plantes et les animaux, notamment pour l�avifaune. Toutefois, un modele ne peut jamais rendre compte de la realite dans toute sa complexite, sans un certain taux d�incertitude. Une fois le produit autorise, des programmes de monitoring sur le terrain peuvent apporter des informations complementaires sur les risques eventuels des PP pour les oiseaux. Ces monitoring ont leurs limites, mais constituent neanmoins un bon outil pour completer les analyses de risques etablies avec des modeles. Ils peuvent aider a mieux comprendre les dangers que les PP representent pour les oiseaux, a deceler des problemes imprevus et a definir des mesures pour diminuer les risques.

PKC activation is a key factor in the development of diabetic microangiopathy. Deletion of the classical PKC-isoform-alpha e.g. protects against the development of albuminuria due to a diminished loss of proteoglycans whereas increased TGF-beta1 and renal hypertrophy is not prevented. We now tested the hypothesis that deletion of PKC-beta-expression, another classical PKC isoform which has been involved in diabetic microvascular complications, will lead to protection against the development of murine experimental diabetic nephropathy. We studied PKC-beta knock-out (KO) mice (n=4/5) compared to SV129 wild type (WT) mice (n=9/9) in nondiabetic and diabetic condition. Hyperglycaemia was induced in 8 week old mice by intraperitoneal streptozotocin (STZ) injection (50mg/kg/body weight on day 1 to 5). Diabetic mice (blood glucose >15 mmol/l) remained hyperglycaemic for 8 weeks before animals were sacrificed. Light microscopy showed glomerular and tubulointerstitial fibrosis in both diabetic groups with less prominent pathological changes in the diabetic PKC-beta-KO mice. Urinary albumin/creatinine ratio was significantly increased in the diabetic WT compared to control and non-diabetic PKC-beta-KO animals (36.3±15.1 vs. 11.3±2.4 respectively 11.5±3.2g/mol, p<0.05). Notably, diabetic PKC-beta-KO mice were not protected against the development of diabetic albuminuria (31.7±12.5g/mol, p>0.05). Immunhistochemistry demonstrated that the expression of the basal membrane proteoglycan perlecan was not prevailed in the PKC-beta KO mice under diabetic conditions which we had previously demonstrated in nonalbuminuric diabetic PKC-alpha KO mice. We than further investigated the expression of the profibrotic cytokine TGF-beta1 which was significantly stimulated in the diabetic KO animals indicating a role for PKC-beta in renal fibrosis but not albuminuria in diabetic kidney disease. Our data suggest that both classical PKC-isoforms, alpha and beta, are involved in the development of diabetic nephropathy but mediate distinct physiological effects.

Senescent leaves of Miscanthus sinensis contained 36% soluble polysaccharides, 26% cellulose and had a C/N ratio of 45. In 11 wild flower species contents of soluble polysaccharides (21–30%), cellulose (3–16%) and C/N ratio (13–31) were lower. Decomposing leaves of M. sinensis lost weight at a rate of 0.002 day−1, increased the C/N ratio from 45 to about 100, the bacterial biomass from 0.4 to 1μgCmg−1 dry weight, and decreased the tensile strength from 35 to 10N. The withdrawal rate of Lumbricus terrestris with senescent leaves of M. sinensis was 30mgg−1 week−1; the feeding rate was lower. With most senescent wild flowers withdrawal and feeding rates were higher. During decomposition of M. sinensis withdrawal rates increased to about 90, and feeding rates to about 30mgg−1 week−1. The rates were not related to soluble polysaccharides, cellulose, acid-insoluble residue, C/N ratio and the presence of trichomes on the leaves. The abundance of L. terrestris decreased in a meadow turned into a field of M. sinensis from 55 to 26 earthworms m−2 and increased in a rotational maize field turned into wild flower strips from 28 to 46 earthworms m−2. The species richness of earthworms decreased with M. sinensis from 7.2 to 4.7 and increased with wild flowers from 4.7 to 6.7 species per sampling unit.

The decomposition of leaves of Taraxacum officinale, Hypericum perforatum, Dipsacus silvester and Miscanthus sinensis was monitored under laboratory conditions (20°C, 90 to 100% relative humidity) for 2 to 4weeks. At weekly intervals, weight loss, C-to-N-ratio, secondary plant metabolites, bacterial biomass and palatability to the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris were determined. The first order constants for dry weight loss were 0.092, 0.012, 0.005 and 0.004d−1 for T. officinale, H. perforatum, D. silvester and M. sinensis, respectively. Secondary metabolites in green leaves of all plants mainly comprised polyphenolic compounds (bitter drugs, coumarins, flavonoids). During initial decomposition, the overall pattern of secondary plant metabolites was characterized by a qualitative and quantitative reduction. After one week of decomposition, the patterns of secondary plant metabolites became similar in all species and remained visually unchanged during further decomposition. A potential inhibition of bacterial growth and palatability to L. terrestris could be demonstrated in bioassays with extracts of secondary plant metabolites from H. perforatum and D. silvester. On plants, however, an inhibition of bacterial growth and a reduction of palatability to L. terrestris was only obtained during the initial decomposition of senescent leaves of H. perforatum which is known to possess toxic secondary plant metabolites. The bacterial growth and the palatability to L. terrestris on leaves of T. officinale, D. silvester and M. sinensis were mainly influenced by the C-to-N-ratio of the leaves.

SummaryIn a pre‐alpine meadow in the Toggenburg (Switzerland), casts of the earthwormAporrectodea nocturna, initially detected 20 years ago around a newly planted hedge, now extend 170 m from the hedge. The abundance of A.nocturmadecreased between 140 and 170 m from the hedge from 237 (site: An+) to 0 (site: An−) individuals m−2. The worm's activity and the macroporosity it has created have been studied using CAT scanning followed by automated image analysis of pores from 1·5 to 9 mm diameter. Brightness values in images from CAT scanning showed distinct local frequency maxima for stones, soil matrix and macropores. Measured diameters of pores were strongly linearly correlated with diameters of needles used to produce artificial pores. Pores from 1·5 to 3 mm were most abundant. The maximum number of pores from 1·5 to 9 mm (about 1600 m−2) was larger than the maximum number of all earthworms (about 480 m−2). Modelling the cast production ofA. nocturnaindicated that 23·8 kg m−2were deposited on the soil's surface within 3 months. The measured macroporosity (1·5–6 mm) was one‐quarter to one‐sixth of the pore volume corresponding to the removed casts. Thus, net production of pores by earthworms was a result both of the burrowing activity and of the refilling with eroded cast material. Depth distributions of bulk density, total porosity and pores from 1·5 to 9 mm were different at An+ from those at An−. However, diffusion of butane was equal at An+ and An−. Three‐dimensional reconstruction suggested that the disposition (continuity, interconnectivity) of pores was more important for gas diffusion than the structure (size distribution, frequency) and bulk soil parameters.