Sponges are regarded as the most primitive of animals because of their 'simple' body plans, having a multicellular grade of construction but without actual tissues or organs, yet studies of this oldest of metazoan groups have contributed a great deal to our understanding of life on Earth. For example, the discovery of complex immune and cell-aggregation systems in sponges has led to better understanding of the cellular processes of higher organisms and, in particular, the nature of cell surfaces as active agents in cell and tissue recognition (Bergquist 1994). Their fossil record dates back about 600 million years (Finks 1970; Li et al. 1998).

New feeding information on 108 species of the sponge-feeding chromodorid nudibranchs is presented, and published information for 63 species re-evaluated. The combined information for 137 species shows a clear pattern of food specificity, at both species and genus levels. New feeding information on the related Actinocyclidae is also presented. Species of Chromodoris and related genera prefer darwinellids; Hypselodoris and its relatives feed on dysideids, and Glossodoris feed exclusively on thorectids. The ‘basal’ genera, Cadlina, Cadlinella are less specialised but both they and species of the anatomically similar family Actinocyclidae seem linked by their common choice of Halisarca. Exceptions to the pattern suggest the genus Chromodoris is polyphyletic. The evolution of feeding in the Chromodorididae is discussed, and the patterns of food specificity are shown to strongly support prevailing hypotheses on chromodorid evolution. Recent taxonomic studies within the sponge orders Dictyoceratida and Dendroceratida have been essential to this study, enabling the re-identification of many of the food sponges, and the use of marker secondary metabolites in both the nudibranchs and their sponge prey.

New feeding information on 108 species of the sponge- feeding chromodorid nudibranchs is presented, and published information for 63 species re-evaluated. The combined information for 137 species shows a clear pattern of food specificity, at both species and genus levels. New feeding information on the related Actinocyclidae is also presented. Species of Chromodoris and related genera prefer darwinellids; Hypselodoris and its relatives feed on dysideids, and Glossodoris feed exclusively on thorectids. The 'basal' genera, Cadlina, Cadlinella are less specialised but both they and species of the anatomically similar family Actinocyclidae seem linked by their common choice of Halisarca. Exceptions to the pattern suggest the genus Chromodoris is polyphyletic. The evolution of feeding in the Chromodorididae is discussed, and the patterns of food specificity are shown to strongly support prevailing hypotheses on chromodorid evolution. Recent taxonomic studies within the sponge orders Dictyoceratida and Dendroceratida have been essential to this study, enabling the re-identification of many of the food sponges, and the use of marker secondary metabolites in both the nudibranchs and their sponge prey.

Four species of marine sponges (Phylum Porifera, Order Dictyoceratida), which contain the filamentous cyanobacterial symbiont Oscillatoria spongeliae, were collected from four locations in Palau. The halogenated natural products associated with the symbiont were characterized from each sample, revealing that each species contained either chlorinated peptides, brominated diphenyl ethers, or no halogenated compounds. Analysis of the host sponges and the symbionts indicated that each species of sponge contained a distinct strain of morphologically similar cyanobacteria. Although cospeciation may be present in this group, we have identified that at least one host switching event has occurred in this symbiosis. Only the strain of O. spongeliae in the sponge containing the chlorinated compounds possessed genes involved in the biosynthesis of chlorinated leucine precursors, indicating that the chemical variation observed in these animals has a genetic foundation.

Several sponges with a thin encrusting form and of fragile construction have been collected in the Indo-Pacific, and have proved difficult to differentiate, let alone identify, without recourse to electron microscopy. Here we re-describe Halisarca melana de Laubenfels, 1954 from Palau, and H. metabola de Laubenfels, 1954 from Majuro Atoll in the Marshall Islands from new material, emphasising field characters such as coloration in life, surface features, and histological details accessible by light microscopy. Using similar characters two new species of Halisarca, H. ferreus sp. nov., from Zanzibar, Tanzania, and H. cerebrum sp. nov., from Palau, are recognised and described. Another genus belonging to a different subclass of Demospongiae also has fragile construction and encrusting growth form; this is Oscarella, and two new species of this genus are also described, O. stillans sp. nov. from the Philippines, and O. nigraviolacea sp. nov., from Pemba Island, Tanzania.

Three new dinoflagellate species, Karenia papilionacea sp. nov., Karenia selliformis sp. nov., and Karenia bidigitata sp. nov., were compared with the toxic species Karenia mikimotoi (Miyake & Kominami ex Oda) G. Hansen & Moestrup, Karenia brevis (Davis) G. Hansen & Moestrup, and Karenia brevisulcata (Chang) G. Hansen & Moestrup using the same fixative. Distinguishing morphological characters for the genus Karenia included a smooth theca and a linear apical groove. The new species can be distinguished on the basis of morphological characters of vegetative cells that include the location and shape of the nucleus; the relative excavation of the hypotheca; the characteristics of apical and sulcal groove extensions on the epitheca; the cellular shape, size, and symmetry; the degree of dorsoventral compression; and the presence of an apical protrusion or carina. Species with pronounced dorsoventral compression swim in a distinctive fluttering motion. An intercingular tubular structure traversing the proximal and distal ends of the cingulum is common to the species of Karenia , Karlodinium micrum (Leadbeater & Dodge) J. Larsen, Gymnodinium pulchellum J. Larsen, and Gyrodinium corsicum Paulmier. Molecular phylogenetic analyses of rDNA sequence alignments show that the new species are phylogenetically distinct but closely related to K. mikimotoi and K. brevis .

Effective management of fish aquaculture stocks to mitigate the impact of fish-killing phytoplankton requires intensive spatial and temporal sampling to identify and quantify potentially harmful species, so that adequate warning of a harmful algal bloom may be given. Here, we report the development and application of large-subunit rRNA (LSU rRNA)-targeted oligonucleotide probes as tools to aid in the detection and enumeration of the fragile, fish-killing species Heterosigma akashiwo and Fibrocapsa japonica (Raphidophyceae). Oligonucleotides directed toward H. akashiwo and F. japonica were evaluated using fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH). Probes that labelled those species well in the FISH format were then incorporated into a sandwich hybridization assay (SHA). SHAs were successfully developed for both H. akashiwo and F. japonica. Batch culture experiments showed that the response of the SHA using a constant number of H. akashiwo and F, japonica cells harvested in exponential vs stationary phase of growth varied by a factor of approximately two. Preliminary field trials indicate that the SHA appears to be a faster, more cost-effective, and easier-to-use method for detecting and estimating the abundance of H. akashiwo and F. japonica than is FISH or conventional light microscopy. This is particularly true when large numbers of samples need to be processed routinely and rapidly, and when the organism in question is fragile and subject to lysis or morphological distortion if chemically preserved prior to microscopical observation.

Abstract This paper is the fifth in a series revising the taxonomy of New Zealand dictyoceratid sponges (phylum Porifera, subclass Ceractinomorpha, order Dictyoceratida). Six new species of the genus Spongia are added to New Zealand's known fauna. The use of subgenera within the genus Spongia is discussed, and two new subgenera are proposed. The genus Hippospongia is revised, and an emended generic diagnosis is proposed.

This paper is the fifth in a series revising the taxonomy of New Zealand dictyoceratid sponges (phylum Porifera, subclass Ceractinomorpha, order Dictyoceratida). Six new species of the genus Spongia are added to New Zealand's known fauna. The use of subgenera within the genus Spongia is discussed, and two new subgenera are proposed. The genus Hippospongia is revised, and an emended generic diagnosis is proposed.

This paper is the third in a series revising the taxonomy of New Zealand dictyoceratid sponges (phylum Porifera, class Ceractinomorpha, order Dictyoceratida). Only one species of Ircinia has previously been described from New Zealand, Ircinia novaezealandiae Bergquist, 1961. Six new species of Ircinia are added to New Zealand's known fauna. The genus Ircinia contains in excess of 40 published species worldwide, although the integrity of some of these is uncertain, often because of poor diagoses. The diagnoses of new species reported here provide a model for the morphological descriptions of future species. The subdivision of Ircinia is also considered.

Seven new compounds (1-6 and 10) with a unique carbon skeleton have been isolated from the sponge Hamigera tarangaensis, and the structure of a previously reported metabolite has been revised from 12 to 8. The structures have been assigned from extensive NMR examination. Compounds 3-6 showed moderate in-vitro cytotoxicity against P-388, while 3 showed 100% in-vitro virus inhibition against both the Herpes and Polio viruses, with only slight cytotoxicity.

The status of species within the dictyoceratid sponge genus Psammocinia is reviewed. The separation of Psammocinia species from the closely related Ircinia species, which has been the subject of some dispute, is clarified. This distinction made on the basis of morphological evidence is supported by the limited chemotaxonomic and molecular phylogenetic data available. Six new species of Psammocinia are described from the New Zealand region.

Lack of evidence that sponge aquaculture can produce sustainable supply of target metabolite for industrial or pharmaceutical use is constraining commercial development. Experiments to determine aquaculture feasibility examined the influence of environmental factors and explant characteristics on the growth and survivorship of three morphologically distinct sponge species — Psammocinia hawere, a massive cup-shape fibrous sponge, Raspailia agminata, a thickly encrusting siliceous sponge and Raspailia topsenti, a branching digitate siliceous sponge. A variety of expiant types were cultured at different exposures, depths and seasons. P. hawere expiants transplanted to deeper water in winter demonstrated highest growth and survivorship. This was attributed to a relatively lower intensity of UV radiation and cooler water temperatures which promoted fast pinacoderm healing. Growth and survivorship increased with increasing explant size and with proportion of intact pinacoderm. R. agminata explants demonstrated the highest growth rates, perhaps a function of the encrusting and flexible morphology. Highest growth and survivorship were obtained in sheltered locations. Within each species, ratio of body size to wound size and overall size of the wounds inflicted, would greatly influence survival, but with respect to temperate rocky reef sponges, this study suggests that encrusting and amorphous sponges have the greatest potential for success in aquaculture.

Harmful algal bloom (HAB) research and monitoring has traditionally been based on ecological and microbiological measurements which are laborious, time-consuming, and reliant on experienced operators. Recent developments in oligonucleotide probe technology and immunofluorescence research have revealed several potential applications and techniques that may be transposable to laboratory and field-based monitoring and research. Field trials are currently underway for fluorescent in situ hybridisation and sandwich hybridisation assays. The former is particularly suited for laboratory-based research on harmful algal bloom (HAB) population dynamics and structure, whereas the sandwich hybridisation assays based on a portable robotics workstation, offers the potential of quick and reliable laboratory and possibly field-based screening for HAB species. Initial development is underway for molecular beacons and the Q beta replicase detection system, both offer the potential of simple and cost effective strategies for field-based monitoring by people with minimal knowledge of molecular biology.

Specific diagnostic characters are reviewed and redefined for the genus Polymastia in northern New Zealand waters, to provide a framework for the recognition of new species, and for the revision and redefinition of other Polymastiidae. Eight new species of Polymastia are described, and Polymastia fusca Bergquist, P. hirsuta Berquist, and P. cf. massilis Carter are redescribed in the light of new material. Species of Polymastia which contain exotyles and centrotylote oxea in addition to the usual megasclere complement, provided the opportunity to redefine the polymastid genera Proteleia, and Tylexocladus, which would typically have been reserved respectively, for sponges with these spicules. A new species of Tylexocladus is described from the Chatham Rise in southern New Zealand, providing a first record of the genus from this location. A new genus Acanthopolymastia is established for southern ocean Polymastiidae with acanthose centrotylote oxea, with Atergia acanthoxa Koltun from Antarctica as the type species. Two additional species from New Zealand and the Norfolk Ridge, New Caledonia are described, and all are compared to Atlantic species of the same genera. Suggestions for partitioning of shallow-water Polymastia species are put forward.

Ten sesquiterpenoids, including seven new ones, have been isolated from an undescribed sponge of the genus Dysidea. Compounds 1-8 are sesquiterpenoids of the drimane class, while 9 and 10 are 12-norsesquiterpenoids of the same structural class. The structures of novel compounds have been determined by combined spectroscopic methods. These compounds exhibited moderate antimicrobial and enzyme inhibitory (Na+/K(+)-ATPase and PLA2) activities.

We report on the identification of unique sequences within the highly variable rDNA ITS regions and more conserved 5.8S regions which provide data for the design of species- and genus-specific probes, and we examine some aspects of the phylogeny of Alexandrium isolates from New Zealand waters.

Four species of spionid polychaete infested shells of Pacific oysters Crassostrea gigas, in the Mahurangi Harbour, northern New Zealand: Polydora websteri, P. hoplura, Boccardia (Paraboccardia) acus, and B. (B.) chilensis. Three mudblister types, chiefly attributed to P. websteri, were characterised based on their morphology and position within the shell. Fortnightly washing of oysters for 5 and 11 months of growth had no effect on spionid infestations or oyster condition factors. On experimental intertidal racks P. websteri recruitment correlated more strongly with intertidal exposure levels than sedimentation rates. Increasing exposure significantly decreased the incidence of larval new mudblisters, P. websteri infestations, and shell blisters. Dry weight condition index values, dry meat weights, and dry shell weights were not significantly correlated with increased mudworm infestations. Oysters were more suitable for the half shell market and oyster condition was significantly greater towards the harbour channels and entrance. Spionid infestations can be avoided by growing oysters above extreme low water neap and 0.5 m above the mud substratum. (C) 1997 Elsevier Science B.V.

Sponges of the order Dictyoceratida are poorly known in southern temperate regions. This paper describes five new species (genera Psammocinia, Thorecta, and Thorectandra), from New Zealand coastal waters. These represent new records of all three genera from New Zealand.