Since the Quaternary, recurrent climatic oscillations have profoundly shaped species distributions across the Mediterranean basin, generating complex phylogeographic patterns through repeated cycles of range contraction and expansion. The Italian Peninsula, characterized by a highly heterogeneous topography and a mosaic of glacial refugia, has emerged as a hotspot of intraspecific genetic diversity. The Italian wall lizard (Podarcis siculus), a widespread species across the Italian Peninsula and adjacent islands, represents an excellent model for exploring these dynamics. Previous phylogeographic studies based on mitochondrial (mtDNA) and nuclear (nuDNA) markers have revealed a highly structured matrilineal organization, with several parapatric lineages and subclades, but have also highlighted weak differentiation in nuDNA, suggesting possible mito-nuclear discordance. In this study, we used multilocus nuclear microsatellite data to (i) evaluate whether the complex mtDNA phylogeographic structure is reflected in nuclear markers, or whether evidence of mito-nuclear discordance is present, and (ii) quantify admixture and gene flow among mitochondrial lineages. Our results reveal partial congruence between mtDNA and nuclear patterns, with evidence of both historical isolation and secondary contact among major clades. However, several populations exhibit substantial mito-nuclear mismatches, suggesting a history of asymmetric introgression and differential lineage sorting. These findings indicate that P. siculus experienced multiple phases of demographic expansion and secondary contact, consistent with Pleistocene-driven range dynamics, and that mito-nuclear discordance has played a significant role in shaping its current genetic landscape. This study underscores the importance of integrating multilocus nuclear data with mitochondrial evidence to disentangle the evolutionary processes driving complex phylogeographic patterns in Mediterranean taxa.

Abstract Forest structural complexity is a key driver of biodiversity in temperate ecosystems and strongly influences insectivorous bats by shaping foraging opportunities and the availability of suitable roosting structures. However, traditional forest management has often simplified stand structure, reducing both habitat heterogeneity and key habitat resources. In this context, this study investigates how different Biodiversity Enhancement Interventions (BEIs) affect bat activity across functional guilds in managed temperate forests. We evaluated the short‐term effects of three BEIs—(i) habitat trees creation through pre‐senescence and artificial microhabitat formation, (ii) selective thinning with deadwood retention and (iii) canopy gap creation—0–2 years after implementation on bat guild acoustic activity in a temperate forest in northern Italy. Bat activity was quantified using passive acoustic monitoring and analysed across open, edge and narrow‐space guilds using generalized linear mixed models (GLMMs) with a negative binomial distribution. Bat guild acoustic activity responded to BEIs, with gap creation producing the strongest response across all guilds. Activity in gap areas was approximately 13× higher for edge‐space foragers, 8× higher for open‐space foragers and 2× higher for narrow‐space foragers compared to control stands. Edge‐space foragers responded positively to all interventions, whereas open and narrow‐space foragers showed limited or non‐significant responses to habitat trees creation and selective thinning. These results indicate that BEIs differentially affect bat guilds and that while effects of gap creation are immediately positive, responses to habitat trees creation and selective thinning may take more time. Synthesis and applications . Our findings highlight that combining small‐scale canopy interventions with the retention of habitat trees and deadwood can improve habitat conditions for bats. Canopy gap creation represents an effective short‐term intervention to increase bat activity, whereas habitat trees and selective thinning with deadwood retention are likely to provide longer‐term benefits by maintaining key structural resources. Integrating complementary enhancement interventions within retention forestry strategies can therefore support the conservation of diverse bat communities in temperate forests.

Rodentia is the most species-rich order of mammals, exhibiting diverse morphology and ecology. Using data from the Zoological Information Management System (ZIMS), this study provides an overview of rodents kept in zoological gardens and other facilities. Of 2,693 rodent species, only 234 (8.69%) are housed in ZIMS institutions, representing 23 of 34 families. Species body-mass appears positively associated with the number of species holdings. While a few species are widespread, over 70% are found in 10 or fewer institutions. Regionally, Asia, Europe, and North America house the most species, with Europe leading in species diversity. However, European institutions have the lowest ratio of native to non-native species. Species assessed as Data-Deficient by the IUCN Red List are less represented ex situ than in the wild (only 3.4% in zoos vs. 15.4% in the wild), and only 9% of zoo-held species are classified as threatened. Most threatened species are kept in less than 10 institutions.Rodent representation in zoological gardens is skewed toward a few widespread, often large-bodied species. This reduced representation potentially hinders the zoological gardens’ education potential. The underrepresentation of threatened rodents in captivity may be a missed opportunity to increase visitors’ awareness of their diversity and conservation needs. Given the feasibility of captive breeding and reintroduction programs for small-sized taxa such as rodents, zoological gardens could probably expand such initiatives.

Epigenetic mechanisms such as methylation can influence gene expression and play a crucial role in the adaptation to local environmental conditions, thereby introducing non-genetic variability within species. Here, using a Reduced Representation Bisulfite Sequencing approach (RRBS), we compared the methylation patterns in blood and muscle across three European brown bear populations. Our results clearly demonstrated that, beyond tissue-driven divergences, the methylation patterns of the three populations are significantly distinct. Differentially methylated sites, possibly associated with genomic features involved in development and anatomical differentiation, are widespread across the bear genome. This finding supports previous studies suggesting a role for the alteration of developmental pathways in shaping phenotypic novelties with potential adaptative significance. Our results underscore the importance and the effectiveness of including epigenetic approaches in studying wild non-model organisms. Investigating the epigenome can be especially relevant for endangered populations that have experienced a significant erosion of genomic diversity.

This study investigates the colonization patterns of the western European house mouse (Mus musculus domesticus) across five Italian islands using the mitochondrial D-loop marker. Samples from Sicily, Pantelleria, Ventotene, San Domino, and San Nicola were analyzed and assigned to one of 11 previously identified D-loop haplogroups, with seven found in the study area. Sicily, with five haplogroups, appears to be the centre of mitochondrial genetic diversity, likely due to various civilizations introducing mice since the Iron Age. In contrast, smaller islands like Pantelleria, San Domino, and San Nicola each have a single haplogroup, suggesting recent single founder events. Ventotene, despite its small size, hosts two haplogroups not found on mainland Italy, implying two separate ancient colonization waves. The results highlight a complex pattern of human-mediated colonizations from diverse source areas.

During the past century the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) suffered a drastic decline throughout the rivers of the Italian peninsula, surviving only in Southern Italy. Recent surveys have revealed irrefutable signs (i.e. faeces’ presence) of otter expansion in Central Italy and, specifically in the last 15 years, along rivers of Abruzzo region. Gradually expanding along the Sangro river, otters have also recolonized the Abruzzo, Lazio and Molise National Park (PNALM). To explore both the dispersal dynamics from Southern Italy to Abruzzo and the potential factors that may limit gene flow with PNALM population, we collected faeces (spraints) and anal jelly samples from rivers in Abruzzo and Molise, as well as tissue samples from Southern Italy. We identified 52 specimens using 11 microsatellite loci. Results revealed a significant genetic differentiation between Southern and Central Italy, suggesting a stepping-stone recolonization process. Genetic structure analysis and gene flow estimation indicated that otters followed different recolonization routes, dispersing across the hinterland and along coastal areas. Population structure in Abruzzo is weak and genetic diversity low, consistent with a recent colonization and a founder effect. The Ne estimated could indicate the presence of few breeding adults in the PNALM population, but Nc estimated and the 18 unique genotypes in the protected area, suggested the hosting of a higher number of individuals than initially assumed. Although otter group in PNALM is showing a favourable conservation status, its genetic diversity is low, making it vulnerable to demographic and environmental stochastic factors. Accordingly, interventions are recommended to favour movements of otters and increase the likelihood of stabilization and expansion of Central Italy’s population.

Introduced house mice are widespread in Aotearoa/New Zealand, and they have significant impacts on native wildlife. The most common toxins for controlling rodents are anticoagulant rodenticides (AR). Even though AR are an efficient tool, resistance to these substances in rodent populations has been detected in many countries. This phenomenon represents a major factor in reducing the success of pest management, and it is mostly related to missense mutations in the VKORC1 gene. Despite the crucial importance of effective house mouse management, genetic AR resistance in mice in Aotearoa/New Zealand is poorly understood. In this study, we undertook a genetic survey of six sites across the Auckland region to investigate the presence of VKORC1 mutations potentially involved in AR resistance. We found a total of five different missense mutations across four of the six sites. Three mutations leading to amino acid changes have been recorded in rodents previously while two are novel. Among these, the well-known Tyr139Cys, involved in resistance to some powerful AR like bromadiolone, is found with a high allelic frequency in central Auckland. Our results suggest that even across a moderate geographic region, there can be important genetic diversity and clustering in AR resistance. Anticoagulant rodenticides are a critical tool in introduced rodent management, but their use must be deliberated and genetic screening of rodent populations should increasingly be an important part of AR management operations.

The dataset comprises geographical coordinates and linear morphological traits of seven Italian and two Corsican populations of Podarcis siculus campestris. Monitoring activities were conducted throughout the warm season of 2019, from April to September. Individuals were captured using the looping technique, and morphological measurements were taken in situ with an electronic caliper. All animals were released unharmed after handling. Each population includes a minimum of five individuals per sex to account for sexual dimorphism, and no population is sexually unbalanced. Morphological traits were recorded on the head (5 measurements), body (2 measurements), and both fore and hind limbs (4 measurements). Italian populations were sampled along a latitudinal gradient on the Adriatic coast, ranging from the southernmost population in Salve (LE) to the northernmost known non-introduced population in Malpensa (MI). The two Corsican populations were sampled along the eastern coastline. Except for Malpensa (shrubs and mixed forest), all populations were sampled in dune habitats.

Global plant trade represents one of the main pathways of introduction for invertebrates, including insects, throughout the world. Non-native insects include some of the most important pests affecting cultivated and ornamental plants worldwide. Defining the origins and updating the distribution of non-native invasive species is pivotal to develop effective strategies to limit their spread. The agave weevil, Scyphophorus acupunctatus (Coleoptera, Dryophthoridae), is a curculionid beetle native to Central and North America, although it also occurs in Eurasia, Africa, Oceania and South America as a non-native species. Despite being widespread, the extent of occurrence and origins of European populations of the agave weevil have been overlooked. In the present study, the current and potential worldwide distribution of S. acupunctatus was assessed and an analysis of its genetic diversity in the native and non-native ranges was performed. By analysing occurrences from local phytosanitary bulletins and citizen-science platforms, the agave weevil was confirmed to be widely distributed and to occur on all continents, except Antarctica. Additionally, there is potential for expansion throughout the world, as estimated by species distribution models. Nucleotide and haplotype diversity of the COXI mitochondrial gene (about 650 bp) was lower in the non-native (n = 39 samples) than native populations (n = 26 samples). The majority of introduced individuals belonged to the same haplotype, suggesting that most introductions in Europe might have occurred from a small geographical area in Central America. Constant transboundary monitoring and national laws must be considered to reduce the spread of the agave weevil, given that a bridgehead effect may occur from non-native populations to new suitable areas.

The genus Arvicola has a wide palearctic distribution and present two ecological forms - terrestrial and aquatic - characterizing the genus. In Europe two species are present: the most widespread, A. amphibius and A. italicus, , endemic to Italy. The aim of the study was to describe the genetic structure and variability in A. italicus and the genetic identity of populations in northeast Italy, an area of biogeographic importance as contact zone for small mammal species. Thirty-six Italian water voles, displaced in population from south to north of Italy, were analysed by two mitochondrial markers and 8 autosomal microsatellite loci. The phylogenetic analysis on the genus confirmed the presence of major groups mostly corresponding to the species and clades already described. About the Italian specimens, the individuals from one population in northeastern Italy resulted included in A. amphibius revealing the presence of this species in Italy and, in consequence, the possible presence of a putative contact zone between A. italicus and A. amphibius in the northeast. The phylogeny includes a second population from northeast Italy within A. amphibius, , but in basal position and with a low support. The values of divergence of this lineage from A. italicus and A. amphibius lie on the threshold between intraspecific and interspecific divergence. Conversely, microsatellite data support a clear distinction between A. amphibius and A. italicus and includes the ambiguous mitochondrial lineage in this latter species. Furthermore, this northeastern population shows evidence of admixture of nuclear loci with the southcentral A. italicus populations, supporting the attribution of these specimens to A. italicus. . This pattern could suggest that A. italicus in northeast Italy retained an ancestral haplotype and undergone a long period of isolation respect to the southern populations, without genetic exchange until recent times. Within A. italicus, , the admixture shows northern population as the most differentiated showing limited evidence of admixture with the most diverse southcentral. The intraspecific diversity decreases from south to north as expected for an endemic small mammal in Italy. Finally, the low genetic diversity observed in the northern population can be challenging for a species as Arvicola living in fragmented habitats and susceptible to habitat loss; consequently, became important identifying suitable conservation measures for this barely known endemic small mammal.

The African buffalo, Syncerus caffer , is a key species in African ecosystems. Like other large herbivores, it plays a fundamental role in its habitat acting as an ecosystem engineer. Over the last few centuries, African buffalo populations have declined because of range contraction and demographic decline caused by direct or indirect human activities. In Mozambique, historically home to large buffalo herds, the combined effect of colonialism and subsequent civil wars has created a critical situation that urgently needs to be addressed. In this study, we focused on the analysis of genetic diversity of Syncerus caffer caffer populations from six areas of Mozambique. Using genome-wide SNPs obtained from ddRAD sequencing, we examined the population structure across the country, estimated gene flow between areas under conservation management, including national reserves, and assessed the inbreeding coefficients. Our results indicate that all studied populations of Syncerus caffer caffer are genetically depauperate, with a high level of inbreeding. Moreover, buffaloes in Mozambique present a significant population differentiation between southern and central areas. We found an unexpected genotype in the Gorongosa National Park, where buffaloes experienced a dramatic population size reduction, that shares a common ancestry with southern populations of Catuane and Namaacha. This could suggest the past occurrence of a connection between southern and central Mozambique and that the observed population structuring could reflect recent events of anthropogenic origin. All the populations analysed showed high levels of homozygosity, likely due to extensive inbreeding over the last few decades, which could have increased the frequency of recessive deleterious alleles. Improving the resilience of Syncerus caffer caffer in Mozambique is essential for preserving the ecosystem integrity. The most viable approach appears to be facilitating translocations and re-establishing connectivity between isolated herds. However, our results also highlight the importance of assessing intraspecific genetic diversity when considering interventions aimed at enhancing population viability such as selecting suitable source populations.

To protect native wildlife, more than one hundred rodent eradications have been attempted in the Mediterranean islands by using anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs). Despite their high efficiency, resistance to ARs has been observed in many countries and it is mostly related to missense mutations (SNPs) in the VKORC1 gene. The presence of resistant individuals reduces the efficiency of rodent management, leading to an excessive use of ARs. Thus, the risk of poisoning in non-target species increases. In this study, the first survey of ARs resistance in the house mouse Mus domesticus covering multiple islands in the Mediterranean was performed. Tissue samples of eighty-two mice from eleven islands in Italy were analysed and eight missense SNPs were found. In addition to some well-known missense mutations, such as Tyr139Cys, six new missense SNPs for the house mouse were discovered, four of which were new even for any rodent species. Furthermore, the frequency of Tyr139Cys significantly increased in Ventotene Island after a four-year long rat eradication. This could be due to the selective pressure of ARs that allowed the mice carrying the mutation to survive. This study demonstrates once again the importance of assessing resistance to ARs before undertaking rodent eradications. Indeed, this would allow an informed decision of the most effective AR to use, maximizing the success rate of the eradications and minimizing secondary poisoning and other deleterious effects for non-target species and the environment.

Aim: The aim of this study is to describe the compositional and ecological diversity of the Natura 2000 Site ‘Cansiglio Forest’ (IT3310006). Study area: The study area is located in the South-Eastern Prealps between the Venetian-Friulian plain and the Cansiglio plateau, a typical karstic system. Methods: A total of 25 vegetation relevés, each of 250 m2, were sampled in the LIFE SPAN (LIFE19 NAT/IT/000104) project plots and were subjected to cluster analysis (Bray-Curtis, Ward) and NMDS ordination. Variables such as Ellenberg Indicator Values, environmental parameters, life forms, chorotypes, and phytosociological units were tested using ANOVA and the Kruskal-Wallis test to assess significant differences between clusters. The indicspecies package was applied to study the association between species patterns and combinations of clusters. Results: We distinguished three clusters. Cluster A, characterized by several species, including Chaerophyllum hirsutum and Phegopteris connectilis, shows higher EIVs for moisture, acidic soil reaction and lower temperature, a more open canopy and mainly Circumboreal and Euro Asian species of Vaccinio-Piceetea. Cluster B1, a mixed forest of Fagus sylvatica and Abies alba with Circaea alpina, has intermediate EIVs, a closed canopy, low herbaceous layer cover, and higher cover of SE-European species. Cluster B2, a pure Fagus sylvatica forest with Lathyrus venetus, has lower EIVs for humidity and higher for temperature, and mainly Central European species of Carpino-Fagetea. Conclusion: The anthropogenic spruce forest is developing in the Cansiglio plateau and is favored by thermal inversion. It could be identified with Senecioni cacaliaster-Piceetum, but further study is needed to confirm. The mixed forest of Fagus sylvatica and Abies alba and the pure beech forest represent two facies of the Cardamino pentaphylli-Fagetum fagetosum, with the first one dominating on the coldest slopes and the second one on the highest and warmer belt. This community can be included in the Aremonio-Fagion alliance. Taxonomic reference: Euro+Med PlantBase (2023). Syntaxonomic references: Mucina et al. (2016) for classes, orders and alliances; Willner et al. (2017) for suballiances. Abbreviations: ANOVA = analysis of variance; EIV = Ellenberg indicator value; FVG = Autonomous Region of Friuli Venezia-Giulia; HSD = honestly significant difference; NMDS = non-metric multidimensional scaling.

Italy is home to several indigenous goat breeds with great economic and cultural implications, but their genetic makeup remains largely unexplored. This study used the Illumina Goat SNP chip to genotype 142 samples from four Italian goat breeds: Capestrina, Fulva, Grigia Ciociara, and Bianca Monticellana. The genotypes were combined with genome-wide SNP data from 31 Italian breeds to evaluate the genetic profile of Lazio’s indigenous goats. After filtering, the dataset included 51,423 SNPs. Genetic structure and diversity were assessed using MDS, ADMIXTURE analysis and inbreeding coefficients. Focusing on the four Lazio breeds, we examined inbreeding levels (FROH), effective population size (Ne), gene exchange, and runs of homozygosity islands (ROHi). The Bianca appeared highly inbred, whereas Fulva, Capestrina, and Grigia showed heterozygosity levels comparable to other breeds. The increased sample sizes highlighted changes in genetic composition, indeed, ADMIXTURE analysis revealed genetic substructures within Bianca and Fulva. The Ne was found to be declining, with Bianca having the lowest Ne, indicating high susceptibility to inbreeding and genetic drift. The NetView analysis identified two interconnected genetic groups corresponding to: Bianca and Fulva. Key contributors to genetic structure, representing ancestral genotypes, were identified, providing targets for conservation. Moreover, ROH analysis pinpointed individuals with excessive ROH and long homozygosity stretches, particularly in Capestrina and Bianca, which could be limited from breeding to preserve genetic diversity. Finally, ROHi revealed genes linked to coat colour, disease resistance, and heat stress tolerance. These conclusions emphasise the importance of local breeds in maintaining biodiversity and enhancing breeding strategies.

The large number of cryptic species and extensive intraspecific phenotypic plasticity among freshwater fishes pose a challenge to the correct assessment of diversity within these taxa, which is crucial for their conservation. Recently, three different genetic lineages have been identified within the Italian endemic South European roach Sarmarutilus rubilio, a threatened species with a broad ecological niche. Using geometric morphometrics, we tested the existence of morphological differences associated with genetic common ancestry (i.e. between lineages) and/or environmental parameters. We observed streamlined body shapes in sites scarcely altered by human intervention and with fast water flow; on the contrary, we observed deeper body shapes in canals and in one reservoir with slow/still water flow. Our results suggest that morphological diversity in the South European roach is mainly a result of phenotypic plasticity in response to different environmental drivers (i.e. lotic vs. lentic hydrodynamic patterns) rather than different genetic backgrounds.

The Eurasian otter Lutra lutra suffered a sharp decline in the last century caused by multiple pressures, including human persecution, habitat loss, and water pollution. In Italy, the species is currently listed as Vulnerable in the Italian Red List. For top predators a sound knowledge of the feeding ecology is essential to adopt effective conservation strategies, especially at local scale. We analysed the trophic niche of the Eurasian otter in three rivers located in the core area of the Italian otter range and compared niche width and prey composition among river sectors. Prey remains were examined in 415 spraints collected from July to October 2019 at 17 frequent marking sites along seven river sectors (one upstream, three medium course, and three downstream). Differences in the probability of occurrence of five prey categories (fish, crustaceans, amphibians, reptiles, and insects) were compared among rivers and river sectors through Generalized Linear Mixed Models. Pianka index (O-jk) was used to evaluate the trophic niche overlap among rivers sector pairs. Results showed that fish was the main prey in the whole study area, followed by crustaceans, amphibians, insects, and reptiles. However, prey remains in spraints reflected prey composition at very local scale, with fish prevailing in all downstream sectors, while amphibians, crustaceans, and insects mainly represented in the middle sectors. The endemic crayfish Austropotamobius italicus was almost the unique prey in the single upstream investigated. Accordingly, trophic niche differed more among river sectors within the same river (O-jk = 0.21-0.28) than among same sectors (i.e., downstream and middle course) of different rivers (O-jk > 0.6). This spatial pattern is discussed both in terms of behavioural ecology and digestive physiology of the Eurasian otter.

The five independent countries of Central Asia, namely Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, contain one of the richest areas in the world for the specific and intraspecific diversity of temperate fruit and nut tree species. Research was carried out via the collaboration of national research and education institutes with local community-based agencies and farmer communities. Raw data (2014 observations) for almond, apple, apricot, cherry plum, currant, grapevine, pear, pomegranate, and walnut were collected at the household (HH) level across the five countries: Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Kyrgyzstan. A set of models was used, including household variety richness as the dependent variable, to understand the influence of socio-ecological variables on the amount and distribution of crop varietal diversity in the farmers’ production systems. Four variables were included as explanatory variables of variety richness (fixed factors): ecoregion, ethno-linguistic group, management, and abiotic stress. The results show clear evidence that abiotic stress determines a higher richness of intra-specific diversity in the form of local varieties grown by farmers living in climatically unfavorable areas. The results for the studied ecoregions follow the same trend, with ecoregions with harsher conditions displaying a higher positive correlation with diversity. Mild environments such as the Central Asian riparian woodlands show an unexpectedly lower diversity than other harsher ecoregions. Ethno-linguistic groups also have an effect on the level of varietal diversity used, related to both historic nomadic practices and a culture of harvesting wild fruit and nuts in mountainous areas. The home garden management system hosts a higher diversity compared to larger production systems such as orchards. In Central Asia, encouraging the cultivation of local varieties of fruit and nut trees provides a key productive and resilient livelihood strategy for farmers living under the harsh environmental conditions of the region while providing a unique opportunity to conserve a genetic heritage of global importance.