Abstract Europe relies mainly on imports of critical raw materials (CRMs) for its industry, not least the vital ones for emerging green energy technologies. Among the main metal and mineral producers in Europe today, the Nordic countries (specifically, Greenland, Norway, Sweden and Finland) share a diverse geology with various deposit types formed over a long geological time span. This has led to large near-future potential with regard to CRM production. Based on current knowledge and datasets, we assess the Nordic geological potential for CRMs that are specifically relevant for green technologies, namely cobalt, graphite, hafnium, lithium, niobium, platinum-group metals, rare earth elements (REEs), silicon, tantalum, titanium and vanadium, describing the most important deposits, their setting and characteristics. Several Nordic CRM resources stand out in a European and even global context, such as the giant REE(–Nb–Ta–Hf) deposits in Greenland, while the REE–Nb–(Hf) deposits at Fen (Norway) and Norra Kärr (Sweden) are very significant for Europe; Finland is the only major cobalt producer, while Norway has very significant graphite and titanium resources and production. Furthermore, Sweden, Finland and Greenland have very large vanadium resources. In addition, we conclude that the Nordic research and exploration potential for most CRMs is large.

Finland has a significant role in the European Union cobalt supply, with the largest known cobalt resources and only cobalt-producing mines in Europe. In addition, Finland is a globally significant producer of refined cobalt. However, Finland, along with the rest of Europe, is strongly dependent on cobalt imports. Recycled cobalt covers a small fraction of the country's demand, as well as that of the rest of Europe. Most of the cobalt deposits in Finland can be grouped into five genetic types (± subtypes). The orthomagmatic and Outokumpu types have been among the most important sources of cobalt in Finland. The Talvivaara type hosts the largest known cobalt resource in Europe, mostly in the Terrafame Sotkamo deposit. The most common cobalt minerals in the Finnish deposits are sulfides, and to a lesser extent sulfarsenides. These are concentrated by froth flotation, and the concentrates treated in Finnish cobalt refineries. An exception to this is the Terrafame Sotkamo mine, where bio-heap leaching technology is utilized for metal recovery, and metalliferous liquid is processed to battery-grade chemicals. Assessment of undiscovered mineral resources, prospectivity modelling, the exploration history and recent discoveries highlight the exploration potential for several types of Co-enriched mineral deposits in Finland. Thematic collection: This article is part of the energy-critical metals for a low carbon transition collection available at: https://www.lyellcollection.org/topic/collections/critical-metals

Climate change can affect the mining sector in various ways. Physical impacts can be a threat to mines and personnel, transport infrastructure and supply chains, while the low-carbon transition may entail transition risks stemming from e.g., the need to respond to mitigation and adaptation policies, as well as opportunities in the form of increased metal and mineral demand. However, there is little knowledge of how mining companies perceive, manage, and respond to risks related to climate change. To address this knowledge gap, we examined annual and sustainability reports from 2019 for active metal mines in Finland, Sweden, and Norway. Through a structuring qualitative content analysis, we analysed the mining companies' self-reported experience of and expectations for climate change impacts and risks, as well as adaptation and management activities taken or planned. Our findings indicate that physical impacts of climate change are not perceived as a major risk. In contrast, mitigation activities and reactions to climate policies play an important role, at least for some of the companies. Hence, the mining sector would benefit from more stringent risk reporting regulations and distinctive guidelines, as well as more research on the direct and indirect climate change impacts.

Land-use conflicts can be costly and time-consuming and cause social burden to all parties. In this study, we developed an approach for mapping synergy and conflict potential between land uses and tested it on nature protection, nature-based tourism, forestry and mining. First, we calculated the ecological and socio-cultural values for the study area, and further the economic values related to forestry and mining. Second, we conducted an integrated spatial assessment of these values and used it jointly with a variant of a value compatibility analysis to locate areas with possible synergistic and conflicting land uses. This study was carried out in Finnish Lapland where land use conflicts have occurred due to the need to develop forestry and mining in areas that are also important for nature-based tourism. The method operated well as it identified sites with ongoing land-use disputes. Synergy potential between biodiversity and socio-cultural values was identified in protected areas and other sites of natural beauty, and conflict potential concerning forestry near tourist resorts and concerning mining at proposed mining project sites. The developed framework can assist in locating sites that may need proactive measurements to avoid conflicts, and sites that would benefit from multi-purpose management thereby supporting sustainable and adaptive land-use planning.

Finland is a Northern country where mineral exploration and mining has significantly increased during the 2000s. At the same time there occurs competition over the right to use land and ecosystem services. Main competitors over land with mineral exploration and mining industry are especially tourism, reindeer herding, and environmental protection. In this study we combine information over geology, location, timescales, and uncertainty to provide mineral related foresight tools: 1) Mine potential tool, and 2) Mineral deposit potential tool. The former is applied to known mineral deposits and targeted mineral exploration, the latter to regional mineral exploration. Cases presented include Sodankylä for nickel, Kolari for iron, copper and gold, and Kittilä for gold. In a long-term foresight, the usefulness of information on mineral exploration licenses proved limited. Better support for the long-term foresight is given by geological potential (prospectivity), time framing and narrative probabilities for known mineral deposits. Visualising the long timescales and uncertainties in a spatial context is the greatest value of these foresight tools. Also the concept of 'deposit archive', adopting those detected mineral deposits that have proven uninteresting or uneconomic in the current market environment, provides a valuable insight to availability of raw materials in a long term together with the adaptation of the assessment of undiscovered mineral resources.

Major benefits and constraints related to mineral extraction within the EU have been identified on the examples of selected critical raw materials’ deposits. Analyzed case studies include the following ore deposits: Myszków Mo-W-Cu (Poland), Juomasuo Au-Co (Finland), S. Pedro das Águias W-Sn (Portugal), Penouta Nb-Ta-Sn (Spain), Norra Kärr REEs (Sweden) and Trælen graphite (Norway). They represent different stages of development, from the early/grassroot exploration stage, through advanced exploration and active mining, up to reopening of abandoned mines, and refer to different problems and constraints related to the possibility of exploitation commencement. The multi-criteria analysis of the cases has included geological and economic factors as well as environmental, land use, social acceptance and infrastructure factors. These factors, in terms of cost and benefit analysis, have been considered at three levels: local, country and EU levels. The analyzed cases indicated the major obstacles that occur in different stages of deposit development and need to be overcome in order to enable a new deposit exploitation commencement. These are environmental (Juomasuo and Myszków), spatial (Juomasuo) as well as social constraints (Norra Kärr, Juomasuo). In the analyzed cases, the most important constraints related to future deposit extraction occur primarily at a local level, while some important benefits are identified mainly at the country and the EU levels. These major benefits are related to securing long-term supplies for the national industries and strategically important EU industry sectors.

Global demand for cobalt is increasing rapidly as we transition to a low-carbon economy. In order to ensure secure and sustainable supplies of this critical metal there is considerable interest in Europe in understanding the availability of cobalt from indigenous resources. This study reviews information on cobalt resources in Europe and evaluates the potential for additional discoveries. Based on published information and a survey of national mineral resource agencies, 509 cobalt-bearing deposits and occurrences have been identified in 25 countries in Europe. Harmonised cobalt resources, classified using the United Nations Framework Classification (UNFC), have been estimated for 151 deposits in 12 countries where data are available. The calculated total resource comprises 1 342 649 tonnes of contained cobalt metal. This includes: 114 638 tonnes in commercial projects with current cobalt extraction; 370 409 tonnes in potentially commercial projects; 111 107 tonnes in historic estimates compliant with modern reporting; and 746 495 tonnes in non-compliant historic estimates. Analysis of these data reveals that cobalt resources are widely distributed across Europe in deposits of several different types. Global mine production of cobalt is dominated by stratiform sediment-hosted copper deposits, magmatic nickel-copper deposits and nickel laterite deposits, but other deposit types may also be significantly enriched in cobalt. In Europe, current cobalt production is derived from three mines in Finland: the magmatic sulfide deposit at Kevitsa; the Kylylahti deposit of volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) affinity; and the black shale-hosted deposit at Sotkamo (Talvivaara). This study has identified 104 deposits in Europe that are currently being explored for cobalt, of which 79 are located in Finland, Norway and Sweden. The Fennoscandian Shield and the Caledonian Belt in these countries are high priority exploration terrains for a variety of cobalt-bearing deposits, notably magmatic Ni-Cu-Co deposits. The Svecofennian, Sveconorwegian and the Caledonian orogenies in Fennoscandia also resulted in the formation of several other cobalt-enriched deposit types. These include chiefly metasedimentand metavolcanichosted Co-Cu-Au, VMS, skarn and polymetallic vein deposits. The Kupferschiefer deposits in Poland and Germany are stratiform sediment-hosted Cu deposits with some similarities to the Central African Copperbelt, which is the predominant global producer. However, the cobalt grade in the Kupferschiefer deposits is relatively low (0.005-0.008% Co) and not currently economic to exploit without significant improvement in extraction technology. In the Balkans and Turkey cobalt grades and tonnages are known in 27 nickel laterite deposits, with several containing more than 10 000 tonnes of cobalt metal. Only nickel is currently recovered from these deposits, but new processing technologies such as high-pressure acid leaching could enable cobalt recovery in the future. Small polymetallic cobalt-bearing vein deposits in several European countries have been historic producers of cobalt. Today most are uneconomic, but new technologies and the drive towards locally-sourced raw materials could make them viable future sources of cobalt.

This guidebook on the gold and magmatic Cu-Ni-PGE deposits of Lapland highlights deposit characteristics, their diversity, and temporal and spatial relationships. The tectonic setting and relationship to the general geodynamic evolution of the Fennoscandian Shield are examined as well. In addition, deposit-scale controls and structural features are considered to understand the ore genesis. Areas covered include the Portimo Layered Complex, Kevitsa intrusion, Pahtavaara gold mine, Sakatti deposit, Risti and Launi gold projects, Mustajärvi orogenic gold occurrence, Suurikuusikko gold deposit (Kittilä mine), and Rjapalot gold-cobalt project.

The Mustajärvi gold occurrence lies in the southern part of the Paleoproterozoic Central Lapland Greenstone Belt, in proximity to the first-order transcrustal Venejoki thrust fault system. The gold occurrence is structurally controlled by the second-order Mustajärvi shear zone, which is located at the contact between siliciclastic metasedimentary and mafic to ultramafic metavolcanic rocks. The main mineralization comprises a set of parallel veins and sulfidized rocks that are slightly oblique to the shear zone and are hosted by third-order structures likely representing Riedel R-type shears. The gold-mineralized rock at Mustajärvi is associated with pyrite that is present in 0.15- to 1-m-wide quartz-pyrite-tourmaline veins and in zones of massive pyrite in the host rocks with thicknesses ranging from 1.15 to 2 m. In unweathered rock, hypogene gold is hosted by Au- and Au-Bi-telluride micro-inclusions in pyrite, whereas strong weathering at near surface levels has caused a remobilization of gold, resulting in free gold deposited mainly in the cracks of oxidized pyrite. The geochemistry of both mineralization styles is typical of orogenic gold systems with strong enrichments comprising Au, B, Bi, CO 2 , Te, and Se; and less consistent anomalous amounts of Ag, As, Sb, and W. Unusual for orogenic gold deposits is the strong enrichment of Ni and Co, which leads to the classification of Mustajärvi as orogenic gold occurrence with atypical metal association.

The potential metal resources in undiscovered Kuusamo-type cobalt-gold deposits in the Finnish bedrock were estimated down to one km depth using the three-part quantitative assessment method. A grade tonnage model was constructed based on data from known deposits in the Kuusamo area in Finland. Eight permissive tracts were delineated, based on geological criteria. Most of the tracts are located in northern Finland. The number of undiscovered deposits was estimated for each tract by a group of experts at several levels of confidence. The mean estimate of the number of undiscovered Kuusamo-type cobalt-gold deposits in Finland is 58. The cobalt and gold resources in the undiscovered deposits was estimated using Monte Carlo simulation. The median estimate of undiscovered Kuusamo-type resources in Finland is 100,000 t of cobalt and 85 t of gold.

Foresight on land-use planning is gaining more importance in mineral rich areas. We present two tools which add detail on mineral potential planning: Mapping tool for regional considerations and a tool to scan conflicting interests on mineral deposit scale. A case study for the implementation of the mapping tool is provided for Northern Finland. Understanding the risks related to conflicting interests on land-use deepens the understanding of the future supply potential of mineral raw materials. It also increases the capabilities for early mitigation of disputes and conflicts and enhances the quality of planning for sustainable development on local societies.

Lithium resources in undiscovered LCT pegmatite deposits were estimated down to the depth of one kilometre in the bedrock of Finland using a three-part quantitative assessment method. Based on global data from 29 LCT pegmatite-hosted Li deposits we considered the best explored, we constructed a grade-tonnage model for our assessment. Nineteen permissive tracts were delineated for these deposits. Altogether, these tracts cover 22,404 km(2), which is 7% of the land area of Finland. The expected number of undiscovered Li deposits within the permissive tracts in Finland is 7, and these are estimated to contain, with a 50% probability, at least 510,000 t of lithium. Two thirds of the estimated undiscovered lithium resources in Finland are located within two permissive tracts in Western Finland. The assessment results indicate that at least 90% of the remaining lithium endowment within the uppermost 1 km of the Finnish bedrock is in poorly explored or entirely unknown deposits. Compared to global identified Li resource, these numbers are minor, but may be of importance for the near-future European Li battery industry. There has been no global assessments of undiscovered lithium resources to compare with the results from Finland.

The development of mining and other resource-based industries are among key drivers of economic development in the Arctic. The fragile environment and the presence of nature-based livelihoods and indigenous communities pose challenges for mining development. Mining operations should be optimized so that the profitability is maintained in changing market conditions and to meet increasing societal and environmental demands. In this study we present the current understanding on the interplay between mining and the surrounding socio-ecological systems in the Arctic region. The existing academic literature on the Arctic region was reviewed, covering 127 peer-reviewed publications since 2000. We investigated the mining activities from four perspectives examining: 1) environmental, 2) economic, 3) social and 4) legal dimensions, covering three life-cycle stages: 1) pre-mining, 2) mining, and 3) post-mining. The publications on the environmental and economic aspects focused principally on the impacts of mining, whereas social and legal publications discussed the interaction between people and their rights and ways of controlling their environment. Besides the need for more balanced research between different life-cycle stages we uncovered five research gaps concerning the knowledge base needed to increase the sustainability of Arctic mining: 1) impacts and adaptation to climate change, 2) monitoring the sustainability of mining using standardized indicators, 3) holistic economic assessment of mining, 4) social sustainability and conflict management, and 5) mechanisms that mitigate or compensate for the adverse effects of mining on biodiversity.

Land-use planning in areas where mining is an important industry is increasingly based on foreseeing the needs of future mining projects together with needs of other land-use forms. The task was tackled in this research by assessing characteristics and spatial distribution of mineral deposits, geological prospectivity and the exploration and mining activities in the Sodankyla region. The different combinations were classified and probable time scales for possible mining activities were given. The produced categorised maps can be used to evaluate the future overlap of different land-use forms in different timescales and to mitigate possible disputes.

Finland is a traditional mining country and currently one of the most active regions for exploration and mining investments in Europe. Globally, Finland has been ranked in the top 5 in mining investment attractiveness since 2010. The key factors behind the success are the diversified mineral potential, the world's best geodata, an excellent infrastructure and an operating environment supported by the government's pro-mining policy. Readily available, high quality geodata combined with the excellent infrastructure make Finland a cost-effective target for mineral exploration companies.

For around one hundred years, Ni-Cu-PGE and Cr-V-Ti-Fe deposits have been economically viable in Finland. Several deposit types, including 1.88 Ga Svecofennian Ni-(Cu), 2.45 Ga layered intrusion related Ni-Cu-PGE and Cr-V-Ti-Fe, and komatiite-hosted Ni-Cu-PGE, highlight the country-wide exploration potential. In addition, active Ni-Cu-PGE exploration, research and mining, as well as Ni-Cu production and stainless steel industry, form a comprehensive value chain in Finland. The Fennoscandian Shield offers similar geology and metallogeny with the Precambrian shields in Canada and Australia. From the exploration point of view, many nickel-potential formations are still poorly understood, as the exploration focus has historically been on the outcropping part of the bedrock. Only a limited amount of modern exploration techniques has been used compared to the famous mining camps in Canada and Australia. The recently discovered Sakatti Cu-Ni-PGE deposit has also highlighted the good exploration potential of Finland. All along its history, the GTK (Geological Survey of Finland) has actively evaluated Ni-Cu-PGE potential related to magmatic deposits across the country. At the moment, the main focus of the Geological Survey of Finland (GTK) is to support the exploration and mining sector in Finland by offering variable services and country wide modern geodata to exploration industry.

Chromium resources in undiscovered podiform and stratiform chromite deposits were estimated down to the depth of one kilometre in the bedrock of Finland using the three-part quantitative assessment method. Sixteen permissive tracts were delineated for stratiform and two tracts for podiform deposits. The tracts cover altogether 7430 km2, which is two per cent of the total land area of Finland. An existing USGS minor podiform chromite grade tonnage model was used to assess the undiscovered podiform resources in Finland. For stratiform chromite, a separate deposit volume model for each permissive tract and a general model of chromium content per unit volume were used. The estimated mean numbers of undiscovered stratiform and podiform chromite deposits in Finland are 9 and 23, respectively. The undiscovered stratiform and podiform chromite deposits are estimated to contain, at 50 % probability, at least 350 Mt and 7600 t chromium, respectively. The assessment results indicate that at least 92 % of the remaining chromium endowment within the uppermost 1 km of the Finnish bedrock is in poorly explored or entirely unknown stratiform deposits. Practically all of the undiscovered resources are located in stratiform deposits in layered intrusions in northern Finland.

This paper summarises the results of probabilistic estimates of the amounts of Cu, Zn, Pb, Ni, Co, Pt, Pd, Au, Ag and Mo in undiscovered orogenic Au, volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS), porphyry Cu, Outokumpu-type Cu-Zn-Co, synorogenic intrusion-related Ni-Cu, komatiite-related Ni, and layered intrusion-hosted contact-type and reef-type PGE deposits in Finland. The assessments were carried out down to the depth of one kilometre using the three-part quantitative assessment method.Permissive areas (tracts) within which mineral deposits can exist based on their geological properties were delineated separately for each deposit type. Total number of tracts delineated was 188, and excluding overlap, total area covered by the tracts is 190,700 km(2). This means that 57% of the land area of Finland holds potential for the discovery of new mineral deposits of the types included in the assessments. Orogenic Au tracts cover the largest area (110,000 km2), and the contact-type PGE and Talvivaara-type tracts cover the smallest areas (both 310 km2). The number of undiscovered deposits was estimated at several levels of confidence for each permissive tract.The total expected number of undiscovered deposits across all permissive tracts is 309 deposits. The largest expected numbers of deposits are associated with the orogenic Au (90), synorogenic intrusion-related Ni-Cu (66) and VMS (45) tracts. Statistical comparisons indicated differences in tonnage and grade values between Fennoscandian and global data sets for several deposit types, and between global Precambrian and Phanerozoic porphyry Cu deposit data sets. The reason for the differences is inconclusive but probably related to both global variations in exploration maturity and availability of grade and tonnage information. Due to the differences, grade-tonnage models were constructed using data from well-known deposits within the Fennoscandian shield for most of the assessed deposit types. The orogenic Au model was constructed using Fennoscandian and north Australian deposits and the porphyry Cu model using global data on Precambrian deposits.The sum of median estimates of undiscovered resources across all the assessed deposit types is 9.7 Mt Cu, 5.0 Mt Ni, 1.8 Mt Zn, 0.15 Mt Pb, 0.10 Mt Mo, 86,000 t Co, 12,000 t Pd, 5600 t Pt, 2100 t Ag and 1400 t Au. Layered intrusion-hosted PGE deposits and porphyry Cu deposits are estimated to host the largest undiscovered resources containing the majority of the undiscovered Cu, Ni, Pt, Pd and Mo. Most of the undiscovered Zn is in VMS deposits and more than half of the undiscovered Au is in orogenic Au deposits.Comparison between discovered and estimated undiscovered resources indicates that practically all Mo, Pt and Pd resources and more than half of the Au and Cu resources in Finland exist in undiscovered or poorly known deposits. Undiscovered resources of Ni, Pb and Ag are smaller than the discovered resources. Most of the total endowment of Zn and Co appears to be in discovered resources.On a global scale, the Finnish resources are small. The discovered resources and estimated total endowment for most of the metals assessed are <1% of the corresponding global identified resources. Platinum-group elements, Ni, Co and possibly Au might be exceptions to this, at least on a European scale. As a caveat to the results of this work, we stress that a few potentially significant deposit types (e.g., Kevitsa and Talvivaara types, Precambrian epithermal Au) were excluded from the assessments, due to the lack of statistically reliable grade and tonnage data. (C) 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.