The paradoxosomatid genus Touranella Attems, 1937 is recorded from Laos for the first time, with a new species, Touranellachampasaksp. nov., described here. The taxonomy of the genus is discussed, an identification key is provided, and the current distribution of all species is mapped.

Mate choice, copulation, genital morphology, and sperm storage are not very well understood in millipedes. The use of three-dimensional x-ray computed tomography (μCT) provides new morphological data regarding millipede reproductive systems in both the female and male, including chitinous sclerites and membranes, muscles, glands, oviducts, and sperm conduits. Here we present a complete integrated account of the morphology and function of the female genital organs in the family Polydesmidae (Diplopoda: Polydesmida) using μCT, UV fluorescence imaging, and scanning electron microscopy. These data allow us to consider competing hypotheses regarding millipede vulva formation. We additionally present the morphology of copulatory interface in Pseudopolydesmus Attems, 1898 using images of a mating pair in copula and by simulating the interface of the organs using 3D models from μCT, allowing us to tentatively identify a lock-and-key-like mechanism. Finally, we use μCT to reveal the topology of the seminal canal in the gonopod of male Pseudopolydesmus, a topic that has remained unresolved for nearly 80 years.

Here we provide a checklist of millipedes described or recorded in the literature from Venezuela. The diplopod fauna is comprised of eight orders, 18 families, 54 genera, and 157 species. The millipede orders Glomerida, Chordeumatida, Julida, Siphoniulida, and Platydesmida (known elsewhere in the Western Hemisphere) are not, as of yet, reported from the Venezuelan fauna. Two widely distributed invasive species, Asiomorpha coarctata and Oxidus gracilis, were recorded from Venezuela. All species records listed here contain comprehensive citation and synonymy lists. Numerous locality data are questionable and are discussed. For most species, the supposed deposition of the type specimens is given. However, the museum and gender information is taken mostly from the literature as the type specimen themselves were not examined. An analysis of records extracted from GBIF in 2016 and in 2018 was conducted and compared to the data captured from the published taxonomic literature. The data in this checklist are summarized online at the MilliBase website.

A new dragon millipede species, Hylomus laos, new species is described based on specimens deposited in the Field Museum of Natural History. The new species can be distinguished from congeners by having antler-shaped paraterga; midbody metaterga with two rows of 2+2 spines in anterior row and 3+3 spines in posterior row; male femora 6 and 7 each with a large ventral tubercle; sternite 5 with a large, sparsely setose trapeziform lamina between male coxae 4; unmodified epiproct; lamina lateralis of gonopod solenophore broadly rounded, partly folded to sheath distal part of solenomere. Additional specimens of Hylomus rhinoceros are reported and a key to all dragon millipede species in Laos is provided.

The species of the eastern North American millipede genus Pseudopolydesmus are reviewed. Synonyms and comprehensive literature citations are provided for each of the eight recognized species. Diagnostic morphology of the genus, including clarification of male gonopod terminology, is reviewed and defined using scanning electron microscopy and high-quality macrophotographic images, including those in which ultraviolet fluorescence was induced to produce detailed images of morphological structures. Based on the examination of available type material, the following eight species are recognized: (1) Pseudopolydesmus erasus; (2) Pseudopolydesmus canadensis; (3) Pseudopolydesmus collinus; (4) Pseudopolydesmus pinetorum; (5) Pseudopolydesmus minor; (6) Pseudopolydesmus caddo; (7) Pseudopolydesmus paludicolus; and (8) Pseudopolydesmus serratus. The species names Polydesmus neoterus and Polydesmus euthetus are here placed as junior subjective synonyms of Ps. minor (both syn. nov.), and Polydesmus natchitoches is placed as a junior subjective synonym of Ps. pinetorum (syn. nov.).

Abstract: In 2017, a minimum of 8.5 million mollusk lots representing some 100 million specimens were held by 86 natural history collections in the U.S. (81) and Canada (5). Of these, 6.2 million lots representing 70 million specimens were cataloged (73%), another 2.3 million lots were considered quality backlog awaiting cataloguing, and 4.5 million lots (53% of the total) had undergone some form of data digitization. About 1.1 million (25%) of the digitized lots have been georeferenced, albeit with different approaches to accuracy and uncertainty. Fewer than 25% of collections, mainly larger ones, claim to be fully Darwin Core compliant. There are 35,000 primary type lots and 66,000 secondary type lots, representing 1.6% of cataloged lots. About 87% of lots are dry and 13% are fluid preserved, with less than 0.3% frozen. The majority of lots are gastropods (71%) and bivalves (26%). By habitat, 54% of lots are marine, 26% terrestrial, 19% freshwater, and 1% brackish. About 43% of marine and 57% of non-marine holdings are from North America including the Caribbean. Solem (1975), in a previous survey of U.S. and Canadian malacological collections, reported 3.74 million lots of which 775,000 (21%) were uncataloged backlog, and suggested that backlog was growing at a faster rate than specimens were being cataloged. Since then the overall size of mollusk collections has grown by 227% and cataloged lots by 208%, but quality backlog has grown by 300%, confi rming Solem's extrapolation. Solem noted that the eight largest collections held 78% of the lots, but in 2017 the eight largest (now with a slightly different composition) held only 63.5% of the lots, refl ecting substantial growth of small and mid-sized collections, and the larger number of institutions that we surveyed. Solem reported a substantial gap between large collections (≥160,000 lots; AMNH, ANSP, BPBM, DMNH, FMNH, LACM, MCZ, UF, UMMZ, USNM) and mid-sized ones (35,000-75,000 lots; ChM, FWRI, Hefner, HMNS, SDNH, NCSM, SIOBIC, UCM, UWBM, YPM), but seven collections now fall in the range of 76,000 to 160,000 (CM, BMSM, CASIZ, CMNML, INHS, OSUM, and SBMNH), and two have jumped to the large category (UF and DMNH). Often overlooked is Solem's conclusion that mollusk collections in the United States and Canada are second only to insect collections for number of specimens, which is still true. Because there are far fewer species of mollusks than insects, mollusks have more specimens per species, averaging 1,100 in our survey, almost ten times what Solem reported for insects and approaching what he reported for fish. Bivalvia may have as many as 2,400 specimens/species, which makes them among the best-sampled classes of metazoans. The high number of specimens/species among mollusk and fish collection makes them well-suited for environmental studies that track faunal change over time and space.

With fossil representatives from the Silurian capable of respiring atmospheric oxygen, millipedes are among the oldest terrestrial animals, and likely the first to acquire diverse and complex chemical defenses against predators. Exploring the origin of complex adaptive traits is critical for understanding the evolution of Earth’s biological complexity, and chemical defense evolution serves as an ideal study system. The classic explanation for the evolution of complexity is by gradual increase from simple to complex, passing through intermediate “stepping stone” states. Here we present the first phylogenetic-based study of the evolution of complex chemical defenses in millipedes by generating the largest genomic-based phylogenetic dataset ever assembled for the group. Our phylogenomic results demonstrate that chemical complexity shows a clear pattern of escalation through time. New pathways are added in a stepwise pattern, leading to greater chemical complexity, independently in a number of derived lineages. This complexity gradually increased through time, leading to the advent of three distantly related chemically complex evolutionary lineages, each uniquely characteristic of each of the respective millipede groups.

Dolomedes Latreille, 1804 is the most diverse genus in Pisauridae, with 98 described species and a wide range of distribution on every continent, except Antarctica (World Spider Catalog 2014). The genus has never been comprehensively revised. Roewer's (1955) monograph covered African species of the genus; Carico (1973) revised the Nearctic species; Vink & Dupérré 2010 revised the four Dolomedes species of New Zealand.

Dolomedes Latreille, 1804 is the most diverse genus in Pisauridae, with 98 described species and a wide range of distribution on every continent, except Antarctica (World Spider Catalog 2014). The genus has never been comprehensively revised. Roewer’s (1955) monograph covered African species of the genus; Carico (1973) revised the Nearctic species; Vink & Dupérré 2010 revised the four Dolomedes species of New Zealand.

Natural history collections are an irreplaceable and extensive record of life, and form the basis of our understanding of biodiversity on our planet. Broad-scale educational accessibility to these vast specimen collections, specimen images, and their associated data is currently severely hampered. With emerging technologies and massive efforts towards digitizing specimens, there is enormous potential to revolutionize biology education at all levels. These specimens, images, and data provide an unparalleled opportunity to integrate both inquiry-based and place-based learning into education at all levels and in all venues. Natural history specimens and associated data have an inherent focus on spatial and temporal variation and are uniquely situated to integrate traditionally segregated disciplines, and to develop creativity, generative thinking, and rigorous inquiry; qualities that will be required of successful future generations. These collections are excellent tools for engaging students in biology and helping students draw connections among sub-disciplines within biology (e.g., ecology, evolution, and molecular genetics) and connect biology to other fields (e.g., art, computer science, and geography). Natural history specimens can nurture student interest in solving important societal issues such as sustainability, invasive species, declining biodiversity, food security, climate change, and emerging pathogens. To realize these educational opportunities we need to overcome the disconnect between educators and museum scientists by providing greater access to teaching collections and building student-friendly digital interfaces and educational modules that demonstrate how to explore the vast natural history collections. There are a growing number of excellent models for overcoming these hurdles that illustrate how these approaches could be expanded and more widely adopted in educational settings/environments.

We report the discovery of a ventral plate in the basal and little-known chilognath millipede order Glomeridesmida. This ventral plate, interpreted here as a 'true sternite', is clearly separate from both the coxa and the more lateral stigma-carrying plates commonly referred to as 'diplopod sternites'. Therefore, the lateral, stigma-carrying plates of the Diplopoda, previously referred to as sternites, are not sternal elements, but subcoxal elements associated with the limb base. This discovery changes the nomenclature used for the ventral plates in Diplopoda, with the formerly named 'sternite' better referred to as 'stigma-carrying plate'. In helminthomorph Diplopoda, the stigma-carrying plates are apparently secondarily fused with the sternite. The main argument for the independent evolution of tracheae in insects and myriapods, the different location of their respective spiracles, no longer holds true. In all Myriapoda and Hexapoda the spiracles associated with subcoxal elements are located lateral to the limb base. This discovery shows that the arguments for an independent origin of tracheae in insects and myriapods are not uncontestable.

A catalog of the family Paradoxosomatidae (order Polydesmida) is presented here listing a total of 198 genera with 975 valid species. Of these, 190 genera containing 960 valid species are arranged in three subfamilies and 22 tribes following Jeekel’s 1968 classification (with one addition by Jeekel in 1983). In addition, eight genera with 15 species are currently of “uncertain tribal position.” Eighty-five of the 198 paradoxosomatid genera are monotypic. Currently, 40 trinom- inals and one variety are accepted in the family. Furthermore, there are 83 species listed as “doubtful species”. The species Porcullosoma albipes, P. castaneum, P. connectens, P. jaujense, P. mamillatum and P. muticum are listed as new combinations, assigned to the genus Ergethus. For each tribe, genus and species bibliographic citations are given, including a citation of the original description and all significant subsequent citations in chronological order. Eighty-eight generic and 120 species- level synonymies are fully referenced, and presented in table form. Geographic information for each species is based mainly on the locality of the type specimen. An index to genus and species names is included. Electronic files of all valid genera, species, with author and year, as well as all generic and species-level synonyms, as well as subspecies are available from the authors.

Jorgensen, M. C., Sierwald, P. & Mason‐Gamer, R. J. (2012). A review of subspecies recognition in polydesmidan millipedes (Diplopoda) with a revision of the subspecies of Euryuridae (Xystodesmoidea). —Zoologica Scripta, 42, 317–326.Taxonomic subspecies recognition is controversial due to the lack of an objective definition of the concept and inconsistent use of the category. The practice of designating subspecies is assessed here through a thorough review of 244 subspecies designations of polydesmidan millipedes over a 50‐year period. The survey focuses on the justification given for subspecies recognition, the amount of data available for the designation, the handling of nominate subspecies and the criteria used for diagnosis. We address several problematic issues and provide suggestions to enhance future work. Three examples of subdivided species from the Euryuridae (Polydesmida) are presented in detail with some taxonomic revision. Euryurus leachii leachii and E. leachii fraternus are synonymized, and the subspecific epithets are discarded. Auturus erythropygos erythropygos and A. erythropygos becki are returned to full species rank.

As a first step towards an inventory of the giant pill-millipedes in Thailand, a new species of the genus SphaerobelumVerhoeff, 1924, S. truncatum n. sp. is described from Nan Province, northern Thailand. A determination key is presentedfor all five known Sphaerobelum species. Clear morphological differences between S. truncatum n. sp. and the other fourSphaerobelum species were found on the anterior telopods. For the first time in Sphaerobelum, the partial mitochondrialCOI gene was sequenced for S. truncatum n. sp. and compared with distance, maximum parsimony and maximum likeli-hood methods to those of species from other giant pill-millipede genera. Sphaerobelum truncatum n. sp. was found to dif-fer from all other analyzed giant pill-millipedes, including species of Zephronia Gray, 1832, by 22–30%, includingnumerous amino acid changes, supporting the separate status of Sphaerobelum among other giant pill-millipede genera.Maximum likelihood and parsimony analyses support the placement of Sphaerobelum in the Zephroniidae. Figures of allrelevant structures of Sphaerobelum truncatum n. sp. are provided to allow the use of these characters in future descriptions of species of the family Zephroniidae.

Giant pill-millipedes (order Sphaerotheriida) are large-bodied millipedes without poison glands which can roll-up into a complete ball. Their disconnected area of distribution spanning South Africa, Madagascar, India, SE Asia, Australia and New Zealand makes them interesting model organisms for biogeographic studies. The here presented phylogeny is based on a molecular dataset covering all areas of distribution with a special focus on Madagascar, where some species of giant pill-millipedes show island gigantism, reaching the size of a baseball. For our study, two mitochondrial genes (partial 16S rRNA and COI) as well as the complete nuclear 18S rDNA were sequenced. While many recent vertebrate studies hint that the ancestors of the recent Malagasy fauna crossed the >350km wide Mozambique Channel several times, no such crossing was discovered in the Sphaerotheriida. For the first time in a molecular phylogenetic study of soil arthropods, a Madagascar–India group, the family Arthrosphaeridae, is recovered, hinting to a Gondwanan origin of the Sphaerotheriida. The Malagasy-Indian family Arthrosphaeridae forms a monophyletic, statistically well-supported group in all obtained trees. The giant pill-millipedes from Madagascar are paraphyletic because the Malagasy genus Sphaeromimus is the sister-taxon of the Indian Arthrosphaera. In Sphaeromimus, an ecotone shift occurred only once: the spiny forest species Sphaeromimus musicus forms the sister-clade to the species collected in rainforests and littoral rainforests. The two species of the Malagasy genus Zoosphaerium which express island gigantism form a monophyletic group in some trees, but these trees lack good statistical support. Deeper nodes inside the Sphaerotheriida, like the position of the Australian genera Procyliosoma and Epicyliosoma, the Southeast Asian family Zephroniidae and the South African genus Sphaerotherium could not be resolved. This study is the first genetic study inside the order Sphaerotheriida and provides a proper basis for future molecular biogeographic studies in millipedes and soil organisms from Madagascar.

A new dragon millipede species, Desmoxytes philippina, from the Philippines is described. This fi rst Philippine dragon millipede species expands the previously known distribution of the group, from Southeast Asia (Desmoxytes Chamberlin, 1923) and Australia (Desmoxytoides Mesibov, 2006).

A new dragon millipede species, Desmoxytes philippina, from the Philippines is described. This first Philippine dragon millipede species expands the previously known distribution of the group, from Southeast Asia (Desmoxytes Chamberlin, 1923) and Australia (Desmoxytoides Mesibov, 2006).