Follower role orientations affect how followers approach the leadership process; however, there has been little insight into how individuals use these role beliefs to influence leader outcomes, particularly through their psychological and social leader-follower relationships. This research examines how co-production, passive, and anti-authoritarian follower role orientations affect a follower's influence on their leader and leader effectiveness indirectly through psychological closeness and relationship quality. The results from two studies suggest co-production role orientation had positive effects on influence on the leader through psychological closeness and on perceived leader effectiveness through closeness and leader-member exchange. Passive role orientation was negatively related to followers' influence on the leader through reduced psychological closeness in study 1, while anti-authoritarian role beliefs were negatively related to closeness in study 2. These findings suggest that when followers believe co-production is critical to the leadership process, closeness with the leader, relationship quality, and perceived leader effectiveness improve.

Objective We examined the impact of health care workers’ (HCWs) adjustment to the COVID-19 pandemic on their work-related attitudes and behaviors. Methods HCWs (n = 1468) participated in an observational longitudinal study in which they completed surveys of anxiety and occupational health between 2020 and 2021. Results Most HCWs reported anxiety that was consistently below the diagnostic threshold (68%) or fell below the threshold within a year (16%). Others reported consistently high (14%) or increasing (2%) anxiety, especially women, younger HCWs, those with a weakened immune system, and allied health professionals. Consistently high or increasing anxiety was associated with poorer job satisfaction, work engagement, perceived supervisor support, burnout, and turnover intentions. Conclusions Resources to support HCWs may be focused on those who report consistently high or increasing anxiety to minimize the effects of crises and disasters on the workforce.

Purpose The authors integrate social cognitive theory with social exchange theory to examine how subordinates' perceptions of leader-member exchange (LMX) and moral disengagement mediate the relationship between congruence on implicit leadership theories (ILTs) of ethical leaders and characteristics recognized in one's supervisor (ethical ILT–supervisor alignment) and subsequent engagement-related outcomes (engagement attitudes, job satisfaction and supervisor-directed deviance). The authors then examine romance of leadership (ROL) as a moderator of these relationships. Design/methodology/approach The authors tested the theorized indirect effects and boundary conditions in a moderated mediation model using 180 working adults over three time points, in a polynomial regression framework using a block variable approach. Findings The authors found moderated indirect effects between ethical ILT–supervisor alignment and work-related outcomes via LMX and moral disengagement. ROL served as a boundary condition, such that the high levels bolstered the positive effects of ethical ILT–supervisor alignment. Originality/value The study results suggest that examining ethical leadership through the lens of implicit theories may be fruitful and highlight the importance of accounting for context when assessing the impact of ILTs.

Although numerous typologies, taxonomies, characteristics, and behaviors of followers have been proposed, there has been little systematic work to integrate these efforts. Guided by literature on follower role theory and expectations for those in follower roles, we propose a theoretical descriptive typology of follower characteristics and behaviors from the perspective of how leaders view followers within their role(s). Specifically, we constructed our typological model based on the three core tenets of follower role theory: (1) active versus passive characteristics and behaviors, (2) self-directed versus relationship-directed characteristics and behaviors, and (3) stability-focused versus change-focused characteristics and behaviors demonstrated in response to organizational constraints. We then conducted a systematic review of existing follower typologies, taxonomies, characteristics, and behaviors and synthesized 173 follower concepts from 36 Journal articles and book chapters to build out our typological model of 8 specific types of followers, labeled as follows: Politically strategic followers, independent followers, proactive followers, conforming followers, deviant followers, alienated followers, devoted followers, and submissive followers. This typology has important implications for scholars and practitioners. For scholars, this is the first effort to integrate prior attempts to classify follower in-role characteristics and behaviors, thus providing a useful framework to examine various ways in which followers interact with leaders in organizational frameworks. For practitioners, this typology can be used as a diagnostic tool to determine how to effectively engage subordinates.

In this study, we integrate follower categorization theory with affective events theory (AET) to investigate the extent to which within-person patterns of implicit followership theories (IFTs) and work-related affect predict job satisfaction for leaders versus followers. Latent profile analysis (LPA) was used to identify and to describe distinct profiles of IFTs and work-related affect for leaders versus followers. For the sample of 242 leaders, two profiles with distinct patterns of IFTs and work-related affect ( Proactive and Alienated) were found. Leaders with Proactive views of followers showed above-average ratings of work-related affect, while leaders with Alienated views of followers showed lower ratings of work-related affect. In the sample of 240 followers, there were four profiles of followers with distinct patterns of IFTs and work-related affect ( Conforming, Alienated, Proactive, and Negative). Despite showing a similar pattern of IFTs, followers with Alienated views of their own role showed below-average ratings of work-related affect, while followers with Negative views of their own role showed the highest ratings of work-related affect. These findings suggest that IFTs and work-related affect show unique within-person interaction for followers. Furthermore, for followers, profile membership of IFTs and work-related affect significantly predicted mean levels of job satisfaction. Implications are discussed.

Drawing from recognition‐based categorization and self‐fulfilling prophecy theory, the present study investigates antecedents and consequences of leaders’ implicit followership theories (LIFTs). Using latent variable modelling, in a sample of 230 leader‐follower dyads, we support our hypotheses that follower personality and in‐role behaviour influence LIFTs which, in turn, affect follower effort and performance. Specifically, we found that general factor of personality (GFP), including agreeableness, conscientiousness, extroversion, intellect, and emotional stability, positively predicted positive LIFTs and negatively predicted negative LIFTs. Furthermore, personality had an indirect effect on positive and negative LIFTs via active engagement and independent thinking behaviours respectively. With respect to outcomes, positive LIFTs indirectly impacted follower performance via effort. Contrary to our predictions, negative LIFTs also indirectly impacted follower performance via effort, despite showing a negative direct relationship with performance. Our comprehensive model reveals new insights on LIFTs and highlights the importance of educating both leaders and followers about LIFTs. Practitioner points Managers should be cognizant of the follower traits and behaviours that influence their expectations of followers and be mindful of the potential harm done by negative expectations. Followers should be mindful of the way they engage with their leaders, especially when it comes to independent thinking behaviours which may be construed as rude or overly critical. Finally, organizations should encourage leaders and followers to discuss implicit expectations as this may resolve misinterpretations of behaviour and negative attributions of performance.

PurposeThe authors examine mutually exclusive sub-groups of congruent expectations for leader and follower roles relate to sub-groups of self-other endorsement, and how these patterns predict relationship quality.Design/methodology/approachThe authors examine patterns of congruent implicit theories relate to patterns of self-other endorsement, at the dyadic level, using latent class analysis in 193 working-adult dyads. The authors then examine how these patterns predict leader and follower assessments of relationship quality using general linear models (GLM).FindingsThe authors supported 4 classes of dyads with specific patterns of congruent (or incongruent) ILT's and IFT's: Role congruent, exchange congruent, committed leader congruent, and role incongruent dyads. Class membership predicted leader-assessed leader-member exchange (LMX) and perceived support. The authors then supported 3 classes of self-other endorsement: dyads with mutual endorsement, leader identity endorsement, and no endorsement. Class membership predicted follower-assessed LMX, perceived support, and perceived contribution from leaders. Class membership corresponded meaningfully.Originality/valueThe authors empirically examine the extent to which relationship behavior can be understood: (1) by similar implicit theories, or (2) through identification with a leader or follower role. Moreover, the authors uncover unique combinations of congruence, and address a key challenge posed by traditional variable-oriented strategies typically used in LMX research.

In this symposium, we demonstrate the detrimental role leadership has played throughout the COVID-19 pandemic. The three studies address the predictors (e.g., charisma, romance in leadership, perception of crisis) of effective leadership measured as follower perceptions and safety behaviors. In addition we compare leadership effectiveness cross-culturally. This research addresses calls for research on leadership during this novel pandemic. The findings within this symposium offer insight for effective leadership practices for future crises. Leader Effectiveness During the COVID-19 Pandemic Presenter: Agnieszka Karolina Shepard; Mercer U. Presenter: Jenell Lynn-Senter Wittmer; U. of Toledo Presenter: Tatiana Guevara; lasalle U. Presenter: Ashita Goswami; Korn Ferry Institute Presenter: Ethlyn Anne Williams; Florida Atlantic U. Presenter: Lilah Donnelly; Auburn U. Presenter: Thomas Anthony Neely; - Presenter: Patrick Coyle; La Salle U. Presenter: Kate Marie McCombs; Brock School of Business, Samford U. Presenter: Rajnandini Pillai; California State U., San Marcos

Abstract The present study sought to examine the role of fulfilled vs. unfulfilled expectations in work-related and non-work domains. Specifically, we examined how congruence and incongruence between implicit leadership theories across multiple categories of leaders (typical, ideal, and effective leaders) and characteristics recognized on one’s supervisor affect leader-member exchange (LMX), work-family conflict, and subsequent counter-productive work behavior. We tested our hypotheses using polynomial regression and response surface modeling. The results of this study showed that congruence between implicit leadership theories (ILT’s) of typical, ideal, and effective leaders and supervisor recognition, as well as incongruity between ILT’s of ideal leaders and characteristics recognized in one’s supervisor, significantly impacts perceived LMX quality with supervisors. Incongruity between ILT’s of typical and ideal leaders and supervisor recognition was also associated with higher ratings of work-family conflict (WFC). Finally, the results showed support for a significant indirect effect of congruence between ILTs of typical and ideal leaders and characteristics recognized in one’s supervisor on CWB through WFC. These results add meaningful depth to literature on congruent implicit theories in two ways: (a) we add to existing knowledge of outcomes associated with congruence on ILT’s, and, (b) we examine these associations using ILT’s across multiple categories of leaders. Implications are also discussed.

Organizations have seen an increasing need for entrepreneurial thought and behavior to meet the challenges and demands associated with a dynamic work environment. Interestingly, there is a dearth of scholarly literature exploring the antecedents and outcomes associated with such behavior beyond the scope of new ventures. Accordingly, the present effort draws from the entrepreneurship literature to explore how entrepreneurial self-efficacy (ESE) impacts three types of work-related affect including job satisfaction, work engagement, and affective organizational commitment, via adaptive performance among employees in well-established firms. Data were collected from 251 full-time working adults at two time points and were examined using latent variable analysis. Results indicated that ESE is positively related to adaptive performance, and that ESE positively impacts all three forms of work-related affect via adaptive performance. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed, including recommendations for managers wishing to enhance the adaptability and intrapreneurial performance of their subordinates.

Despite the recognition that a “follower-centric approach” is crucial to the leadership process, few studies have focused on how followers see themselves and their roles in the process. Building on followership and role theory research, we examine how different follower role orientations are associated with the development of quality social and psychological relationships between the follower and leader. In two studies, we establish a relationship between follower role orientations (co-production, passive, and anti-authoritarian) and psychological closeness with the leader and show indirect effects of types of role orientations on followers’ influence on the leader and leader effectiveness. We build on these results to examine the influence of communication frequency as an important link between role orientations and psychological closeness and high-quality leader relationships. We contribute to the followership literature by showing that followers’ inclusion in the process is not limited to upward influence but that role orientations are crucial to the development of relational aspects of the leader-follower relationship.

Extant research suggests that when teams are composed of both White and racial/ethnic minority members, White individuals are more likely to be granted informal leadership status than racial/ethnic minorities. Given this unfortunate reality, we addressed an underexplored question: when or under what conditions do racial/ethnic minorities emerge as leaders? Using a multilevel approach, we examined individual (i.e., learning goal orientation) and team factors (i.e., team minority composition) as key moderators of the relationship between race/ethnicity and leadership emergence. Guided by insights from the social identity theory of leadership, we predicted racial/ethnic minorities would be more likely to emerge as leaders within teams composed of few minorities when they possess high (as opposed to low) levels of learning goal orientation. We tested our hypotheses with a sample of 80 self-managing teams within the context of an assessment center. Results demonstrated support for the notion that it is critical for racial/ethnic minorities to possess high levels of learning goal orientation when working in predominantly White teams to attain informal leadership status. As such, our findings help clarify the conditions under which racial/ethnic minorities emerge as leaders in self-managing teams.

The present study sought to examine the role of fulfilled vs. unfulfilled expectations in work-related and non-work domains. Specifically, we examined how congruence and incongruence between implicit leadership theories across multiple categories of leaders (typical, ideal, and effective leaders) and characteristics recognized on one's supervisor affect leader-member exchange (LMX), work-family conflict, and subsequent counter-productive work behavior. We tested our hypotheses using polynomial regression and response surface modeling. The results of this study showed that congruence between implicit leadership theories (ILT's) of typical, ideal, and effective leaders and supervisor recognition, as well as incongruity between ILT's of ideal leaders and characteristics recognized in one's supervisor, significantly impacts perceived LMX quality with supervisors. Incongruity between ILT's of typical and ideal leaders and supervisor recognition was also associated with higher ratings of work-family conflict (WFC). Finally, the results showed support for a significant indirect effect of congruence between ILTs of typical and ideal leaders and characteristics recognized in one's supervisor on CWB through WFC. These results add meaningful depth to literature on congruent implicit theories in two ways: (a) we add to existing knowledge of outcomes associated with congruence on ILT's, and, (b) we examine these associations using ILT's across multiple categories of leaders. Implications are also discussed.

This study explored how individuals can be sub-grouped based on similar patterns of a four-dimensional model of approach-avoidance motivation and positive/negative affect. Latent profile analysis (LPA) was conducted in a sample of 488 individuals in three stages. First, we identified and described six subgroups of individuals with similar patterns of approach-avoidance (approach-oriented, avoidance-oriented, reward prone, punishment-prone, hyposensitive, and hypersensitive). Second, we identified and described four subgroups of individuals with similar patterns of positive and negative affect (anxious, emotional, apathetic, and content). Finally, LPA was used to model approach-avoidance and affect simultaneously to examine the correspondence between patterns of approach-avoidance and patterns of affect. The findings support the view that patterns of positive emotional expressions are associated with profiles of approach motivation and that patterns lacking positive emotions are associated with profiles of avoidance motivation.

Although motivation is an important component of organizational behavior, work on the underlying motives of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) has produced inconsistent and limited findings ...

While positive implicit followership theories (IFTs) or positive beliefs about followers’ characteristics have been linked with various employee outcomes, our understanding of negative beliefs about followers’ characteristics (negative IFTs) is still limited. We explored the conceptual difference between positive and negative IFTs, and empirically tested the relationship between follower perceptions of negative IFTs and abusive supervision. We found that the congruence between employees’ perceptions of their supervisor’s negative IFTs and employees’ demonstration of these negative characteristics may help explain perceptions of abuse.

We examine the content of implicit leadership theories relating to football managers. While most studies of leadership and sport are interested in direct leadership, we argue here that public figures such as football managers are measured against fan and public expectations. This can contribute to consequences such as selection or dismissal. We compare the contents of implicit leadership theories between two contexts, which differ considerably in the way the sport is structured. This serves to better understand expectations. Using a mixed-method approach and a sample of participants interested in football, the results suggest differences both in the dimensions used to describe football managers and in the frequencies of characteristics within each dimension. For the United States, participants were generally more positive about football managers than the participants from the UK were. Results highlight the importance of looking into the content of ILT and include context to understand expectations better.

The purpose of the present effort was to explore profiles of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) and the motives driving such behavior via a pattern- oriented approach. Additionally, the relationships between patterns of OCB motives and counterproductive work behavior (CWB) and work-family conflict (WFC) were examined in an attempt to elucidate further the possible “dark side” of OCB. Latent profile analyses revealed distinct profiles of OCB motives (i.e., actively disengaged, pragmatic, altruistic, self-serving, and pressured) and OCB (i.e., non-citizen, well-rounded, exemplary citizen, interpersonal, and proactive). Furthermore, the profiles associated with OCB motives mapped onto profiles of OCB, clarifying a link between specific types of OCB and their driving motives. Finally, associations between OCB motives and CWB and WFC were also revealed, bolstering growing work connecting OCB to negative outcomes. Implications for both theory and practice are discussed.

This study identifies risk factors for grief following a mass school shooting. Participants (N = 1,013) completed online questionnaires 3-4 months (Time 1) and 1 year (Time 2) post-shootings. We tested models predicting Time 2 grief reactions, exploring direct and indirect predictive effects of exposure variables (physical and social proximity) through hypothesized peritraumatic mediators (peritraumatic perceived threat to self or others) while controlling for Time 1 grief and posttraumatic stress (PTS) reactions, pretrauma vulnerabilities. Findings demonstrate that closer social proximity predicted higher levels of Time 2 grief, directly and indirectly through increasing peritraumatic perceived threat to others' safety. Physical proximity and peritraumatic threat to self did not predict Time 2 grief reactions. Implications for grief screening instruments and theory building research through identifying risk factors and causal mechanisms are discussed.