Hyperpolarization-activated cation channels are involved, among other functions, in learning and memory, control of synaptic transmission and epileptogenesis. The importance of the HCN1 and HCN2 isoforms for brain function has been demonstrated, while the role of HCN4, the third major neuronal HCN subunit, is not known. Here we show that HCN4 is essential for oscillatory activity in the thalamocortical (TC) network. HCN4 is selectively expressed in various thalamic nuclei, excluding the thalamic reticular nucleus. HCN4-deficient TC neurons revealed a massive reduction of I-h and strongly reduced intrinsic burst firing, whereas the current was normal in cortical pyramidal neurons. In addition, evoked bursting in a thalamic slice preparation was strongly reduced in the mutant mice probes. HCN4-deficiency also significantly slowed down thalamic and cortical oscillations during active wakefulness. Taken together, these results establish that thalamic HCN4 channels are essential for the production of rhythmic intrathalamic oscillations and determine regular TC oscillatory activity during alert states.

Alterations in cortical cellular organization, network functionality, as well as cognitive and locomotor deficits were recently suggested to be pathological hallmarks in multiple sclerosis and corresponding animal models as they might occur following demyelination. To investigate functional changes following demyelination in a well-defined, topographically organized neuronal network, in vitro and in vivo, we focused on the primary auditory cortex (A1) of mice in the cuprizone model of general de- and remyelination. Following myelin loss in this model system, the spatiotemporal propagation of incoming stimuli in A1 was altered and the hierarchical activation of supra- and infragranular cortical layers was lost suggesting a profound effect exerted on neuronal network level. In addition, the response latency in field potential recordings and voltage-sensitive dye imaging was increased following demyelination. These alterations were accompanied by a loss of auditory discrimination abilities in freely behaving animals, a reduction of the nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor-2 (Nrf-2) protein in the nucleus in histological staining and persisted during remyelination. To find new strategies to restore demyelination-induced network alteration in addition to the ongoing remyelination, we tested the cytoprotective potential of dimethyl fumarate (DMF). Therapeutic treatment with DMF during remyelination significantly modified spatiotemporal stimulus propagation in the cortex, reduced the cognitive impairment, and prevented the demyelination-induced decrease in nuclear Nrf-2. These results indicate the involvement of anti-oxidative mechanisms in regulating spatiotemporal cortical response pattern following changes in myelination and point to DMF as therapeutic compound for intervention.

Multiple sclerosis is characterized by intermingled episodes of de- and remyelination and the occurrence of white- and grey-matter damage. To mimic the randomly distributed pathophysiological brain lesions observed in MS, we assessed the impact of focal white and grey matter demyelination on thalamic function by directing targeted lysolecithin-induced lesions to the capsula interna (CI), the auditory cortex (A1), or the ventral medial geniculate nucleus (vMGN) in mice. Pathophysiological consequences were compared with those of cuprizone treatment at different stages of demyelination and remyelination. Combining single unit recordings and auditory stimulation in freely behaving mice revealed changes in auditory response profile and electrical activity pattern in the thalamus, depending on the region of the initial insult and the state of remyelination. Cuprizone-induced general demyelination significantly diminished vMGN neuronal activity and frequency-specific responses. Targeted lysolecithin-induced lesions directed either to A1 or to vMGN revealed a permanent impairment of frequency-specific responses, an increase in latency of auditory responses and a reduction in occurrence of burst firing in vMGN neurons. These findings indicate that demyelination of grey matter areas in the thalamocortical system permanently affects vMGN frequency specificity and the prevalence of bursting in the auditory thalamus.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a complex disease resulting from the occurrence of intermingled episodes of neuro-inflam mation and degeneration. The temporal and spatial patterns in which these events occur are not well understood as well as the molecular substrates underlying it. Myelin loss and gain, as well as axonal damage are considered crucial events influencing the course of the disease but their cause/effect dependency remains unclear. Numerous recent evidence showed impaired cognitive behaviors both in MS patients and animal models, which would support a profound involvement of neurons in mediating such effects, along to the long-known MS hallmarks like locomotor deficits and slow axonal conductance, attributed mainly to myelin loss. In order to investigate the role of neurons and their functionality in the pathophysiology on MS we took advantage of different animal models of neuro-inflammation and general de- and remyelination, namely the experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE) and the cuprizone model, respectively. For both animals we could observe the occurrence of different cognitive impairments including loss of short and long term memory and of high functional cortical abilities. In both animals models we could associate these symptoms to an altered neuronal network excitability and therefore, we pursued pharmacological modulation in vitro and in vivo in order to verify this finding by identifying potential molecular players. Therefore, by using different novel or established compounds we tried to identify new drugable targets and new therapeutic time windows for intervention.

Myelin loss is a severe pathological hallmark common to a number of neurodegenerative diseases, including multiple sclerosis (MS). Demyelination in the central nervous system appears in the form of lesions affecting both white and gray matter structures. The functional consequences of demyelination on neuronal network and brain function are not well understood. Current therapeutic strategies for ameliorating the course of such diseases usually focus on promoting remyelination, but the effectiveness of these approaches strongly depends on the timing in relation to the disease state. In this study, we sought to characterize the time course of sensory and behavioral alterations induced by de- and remyelination to establish a rational for the use of remyelination strategies. By taking advantage of animal models of general and focal demyelination, we tested the consequences of myelin loss on the functionality of the auditory thalamocortical system: a well-studied neuronal network consisting of both white and gray matter regions. We found that general demyelination was associated with a permanent loss of the tonotopic cortical organization in vivo, and the inability to induce tone-frequency-dependent conditioned behaviors, a status persisting after remyelination. Targeted, focal lysolecithin-induced lesions in the white matter fiber tract, but not in the gray matter regions of cortex, were fully reversible at the morphological, functional and behavioral level. These findings indicate that remyelination of white and gray matter lesions have a different functional regeneration potential, with the white matter being able to regain full functionality while cortical gray matter lesions suffer from permanently altered network function. Therefore therapeutic interventions aiming for remyelination have to consider both region- and time-dependent strategies.

Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated cation (HCN) channels have important functions in controlling neuronal excitability and generating rhythmic oscillatory activity. The role of tetratricopeptide repeat-containing Rab8b-interacting protein (TRIP8b) in regulation of hyperpolarization-activated inward current, I h , in the thalamocortical system and its functional relevance for the physiological thalamocortical oscillations were investigated. A significant decrease in I h current density, in both thalamocortical relay (TC) and cortical pyramidal neurons was found in TRIP8b-deficient mice (TRIP8b −/− ). In addition basal cAMP levels in the brain were found to be decreased while the availability of the fast transient A-type K + current, I A , in TC neurons was increased. These changes were associated with alterations in intrinsic properties and firing patterns of TC neurons, as well as intrathalamic and thalamocortical network oscillations, revealing a significant increase in slow oscillations in the delta frequency range (0.5–4 Hz) during episodes of active-wakefulness. In addition, absence of TRIP8b suppresses the normal desynchronization response of the EEG during the switch from slow-wave sleep to wakefulness. It is concluded that TRIP8b is necessary for the modulation of physiological thalamocortical oscillations due to its direct effect on HCN channel expression in thalamus and cortex and that mechanisms related to reduced cAMP signaling may contribute to the present findings.

As part of the extended amygdala network, the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) was shown to be critically involved in processing sustained fear responses to diffuse and unpredictable threats. However, neuronal activity patterns in relation to sustained components of the fear response remain elusive, so far. We used a fear training paradigm with unpredictable pairing of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli allowing distinction between phasic and sustained components of conditioned fear, and recorded single units in the anterolateral part of the BNST (BNSTal) in freely behaving mice. An objective, non-biased cluster-analysis was performed for each identified single unit on specific waveform-, activity-, stimulus-dependent and LFP-related parameters. The analysis revealed three distinct neuronal subpopulations of biphasic-, sustained fear on- and fear off-neurons. Results show that activities of biphasic- and sustained fear on-neurons temporally coincide with the shift from phasic to sustained components of the fear response. Presentation of non-conditioned auditory stimuli resulted in a variety of neuronal responses in BNSTal with no indication of biphasic response profiles. It is suggested that fear conditioning sharpens neuronal response profiles in BNSTal with biphasic-cells signaling phasic and sustained fear. These results confirm the pivotal role of BNST in processing sustained fear on the neuronal level, thereby complementing pharmacological experimental animal and human imaging data.

Although various types of ion channels are known to have an impact on human T cell effector functions, their exact mechanisms of influence are still poorly understood. The patch clamp technique is a well-established method for the investigation of ion channels in neurons and T cells. However, small cell sizes and limited selectivity of pharmacological blockers restrict the value of this experimental approach. Building a realistic T cell computer model therefore can help to overcome these kinds of limitations as well as reduce the overall experimental effort. The computer model introduced here was fed off ion channel parameters from literature and new experimental data. It is capable of simulating the electrophysiological behaviour of resting and activated human CD4(+) T cells under basal conditions and during extracellular acidification. The latter allows for the very first time to assess the electrophysiological consequences of tissue acidosis accompanying most forms of inflammation.

Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) are a specialised type of glial cells, supporting axon growth and guidance during development and regeneration of the olfactory nerve and the nerve layer of the olfactory bulb. We measured calcium signalling in OECs in olfactory bulb in-toto preparations using confocal and epifluorescence microscopy and the calcium indicator Fluo-4. We identified two subpopulations of olfactory bulb OECs: OECs in the outer sublamina of the nerve layer responded to purinergic neurotransmitters such as adenosine triphosphate with calcium transients, while OECs in the inner sublamina of the nerve layer did not respond to neurotransmitters. However, the latter generated spontaneous calcium waves that covered hundreds of cells. These calcium waves persisted in the presence of tetrodotoxin and in calcium-free saline, but were abolished after calcium store depletion with cyclopiazonic acid or inositol trisphosphate receptor blockage with 2-APB. Calcium waves could be triggered by laser photolysis of caged inositol trisphosphate. Blocking purinoceptors with PPADS had no effect on calcium wave propagation, whereas blocking gap junctions with carbenoxolone or meclofenamic acid entirely suppressed calcium waves. Increasing calcium buffer capacity in OECs with NP-EGTA ("caged" Ca(2+)) prevented calcium wave generation, and laser photolysis of NP-EGTA in a small group of OECs resulted in a calcium increase in the irradiated cells followed by a calcium wave. We conclude that calcium waves in OECs can be initiated by calcium-induced calcium release via InsP3 receptors and propagate through gap junctions, while purinergic signalling is not involved.

Background and PurposeThe existence of functional Kv7 channels in thalamocortical (TC) relay neurons and the effects of the K+‐current termed M‐current (IM) on thalamic signal processing have long been debated. Immunocytochemical evidence suggests their presence in this brain region. Therefore, we aimed to verify their existence, pharmacological properties and function in regulating activity in neurons of the ventrobasal thalamus (VB).Experimental ApproachCharacterization of Kv7 channels was performed by combining in vitro, in vivo and in silico techniques with a pharmacological approach. Retigabine (30 μM) and XE991 (20 μM), a specific Kv7 channel enhancer and blocker, respectively, were applied in acute brain slices during electrophysiological recordings. The effects of intrathalamic injection of retigabine (3 mM, 300 nL) and/or XE991 (2 mM, 300 nL) were investigated in freely moving animals during hot‐plate tests by recording behaviour and neuronal activity.Key ResultsKv7.2 and Kv7.3 subunits were found to be abundantly expressed in TC neurons of mouse VB. A slow K+‐current with properties of IM was activated by retigabine and inhibited by XE991. Kv7 channel activation evoked membrane hyperpolarization, a reduction in tonic action potential firing, and increased burst firing in vitro and in computational models. Single‐unit recordings and pharmacological intervention demonstrated a specific burst‐firing increase upon IM activation in vivo. A Kv7 channel‐mediated increase in pain threshold was associated with fewer VB units responding to noxious stimuli, and increased burst firing in responsive neurons.Conclusions and ImplicationsKv7 channel enhancement alters somatosensory activity and may reflect an anti‐nociceptive mechanism during acute pain processing.

Fear‐potentiated acoustic startle paradigms have been used to investigate phasic and sustained components of conditioned fear in rats and humans. This study describes a novel training protocol to assess phasic and sustained fear in freely behaving C57BL/6J mice, using freezing and/or fear‐potentiated startle as measures of fear, thereby, if needed, allowing in vivo application of various techniques, such as optogenetics, electrophysiology and pharmacological intervention, in freely behaving animals. An auditory Pavlovian fear conditioning paradigm, with pseudo‐randomized conditioned–unconditioned stimulus presentations at various durations, is combined with repetitive brief auditory white noise burst presentations during fear memory retrieval 24 h after fear conditioning. Major findings are that (1) a motion sensitive platform built on mechano‐electrical transducers enables measurement of startle responses in freely behaving mice, (2) absence or presence of startle stimuli during retrieval as well as unpredictability of a given threat determine phasic and sustained fear response profiles and (3) both freezing and startle responses indicate phasic and sustained components of behavioral fear, with sustained freezing reflecting unpredictability of conditioned stimulus (CS)/unconditioned stimulus (US) pairings. This paradigm and available genetically modified mouse lines will pave the way for investigation of the molecular and neural mechanisms relating to the transition from phasic to sustained fear.

Introduction: Infiltration of immune cells, demyelination, axonal damage and neuronal degeneration are all indicative of the impaired interplay between the immuneandnervous systemduringmultiple sclerosis (MS). The neuroinflammatory events and resulting alterations in neuronal excitability can cause changes in synaptic network function. The aim of this study was to evaluate the hypothesis that distinct histopathological changes like inflammation or demyelination can lead to alterations in neuronal network activities in thalamo-cortical network system. Methods: Control and cuprizone treated mice (general demyelination in the CNS) unilaterally equipped with micro-wire arrays (MWA, 1 array, 8 electrodes and one reference/array per brain region) in the 4th layer of the auditory cortex (AC-IV) and ventral part of the Medial Geniculate Nucleus (MGNv) of the thalamus. Unit activities were recorded before, during and after the presentation of auditory stimuli (2.5 and 10 kHz, 6 times each). The spikes of individual neurons were sorted by a time-amplitude window discrimination and principal component analysis and verified through quantification of cluster analysis. Baseline as well as stimulus-related neuronal firing rates were analyzed and compared between the demyelinated, remyelinating and remyelinated mice. Results: Compared to control mice, demyelinated mice show decreased neuronal activities, but with the time during remyelination, the activity comes back. In addition to that, the control mice show neuronal response to high frequency (10 kHz) auditory stimuli, but the cuprizone treated mice are not able to discriminate between high (10 kHz) and low frequency (2.5 kHz) auditory stimuli. Conclusion: Neurons in auditory cortex and auditory thalamus possess response specificity and discrimination properties. But after cuprizone treatment, sensory responsiveness is abolished and slowly recovers with remyelination, although discrimination properties and specificity remain impaired. Acknowledgements: This work is supported by the CRC TR 128, B6, Meuth, Pape and Budde.

The polygenic origin of generalized absence epilepsy results in dysfunction of ion channels that allows the switch from physiological asynchronous to pathophysiological highly synchronous network activity. Evidence from rat and mouse models of absence epilepsy indicates that altered Ca(2+) channel activity contributes to cellular and network alterations that lead to seizure activity. Under physiological circumstances, high voltage-activated (HVA) Ca(2+) channels are important in determining the thalamic firing profile. Here, we investigated a possible contribution of HVA channels to the epileptic phenotype using a rodent genetic model of absence epilepsy. In this study, HVA Ca(2+) currents were recorded from neurons of three different thalamic nuclei that are involved in both sensory signal transmission and rhythmic-synchronized activity during epileptic spike-and-wave discharges (SWD), namely the dorsal part of the lateral geniculate nucleus (dLGN), the ventrobasal thalamic complex (VB) and the reticular thalamic nucleus (NRT) of epileptic Wistar Albino Glaxo rats from Rijswijk (WAG/Rij) and non-epileptic August Copenhagen Irish (ACI) rats. HVA Ca(2+) current densities in dLGN neurons were significantly increased in epileptic rats compared with non-epileptic controls while other thalamic regions revealed no differences between the strains. Application of specific channel blockers revealed that the increased current was carried by L-type Ca(2+) channels. Electrophysiological evidence of increased L-type current correlated with up-regulated mRNA and protein expression of a particular L-type channel, namely Cav1.3, in dLGN of epileptic rats. No significant changes were found for other HVA Ca(2+) channels. Moreover, pharmacological inactivation of L-type Ca(2+) channels results in altered firing profiles of thalamocortical relay (TC) neurons from non-epileptic rather than from epileptic rats. While HVA Ca(2+) channels influence tonic and burst firing in ACI and WAG/Rij differently, it is discussed that increased Cav1.3 expression may indirectly contribute to increased robustness of burst firing and thereby the epileptic phenotype of absence epilepsy.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the most frequent autoimmune inflammatory disease of the CNS characterized by the occurrence of inflammatory and neurodegenerative events, such as infiltration of immune cells, axonal degeneration and intermingled episodes of de- and remyelination. While prominent pathophysiological features of the disease and consequences of the myelin loss were very well investigated in spinal cord, only few attempts to understand the impact of myelin loss on neuronal network and synaptic transmission were made yet. We hypothesise that MS results from an impaired interplay between the immune and nervous system, such that inflammation and demyelination can lead to alterations in the excitability of single neurons, thereby leading to an overall alteration of neuronal network activity. To unravel the underlying mechanisms, we took advantage of an animal model of chronic de- and remyelination of the CNS induced by temporal oral administration of cuprizone, thereby allowing the analysis of individual animals at different stages of myelination. As a model system we investigated the thalamocortical (TC) auditory pathway, an example of two well-defined gray-matter structures that are highly topographically organised and reciprocally connected by a white matter tract. Mice were investigated under control conditions, during maximal demyelination and after suspending cuprizone treatment.

Key points During the behavioural states of sleep and wakefulness thalamocortical relay neurons fire action potentials in high frequency bursts or tonic sequences, respectively. The modulation of specific K+ channel types, termed TASK and TREK, allows these neurons to switch between the two modes of activity. In this study we show that the signalling lipids phosphatidylinositol 4,5‐bisphosphate (PIP2) and diacylglycerol (DAG), which are components of their membrane environment, switch on and shut off TREK and TASK channels, respectively. These channel modulations contribute to a better understanding of the molecular basis of the effects of neurotransmitters such as ACh which are released by the brainstem arousal system. The present report introduces PIP2 and DAG as new elements of signal transduction in the thalamus. AbstractThe activity of two‐pore domain potassium channels (K2P) regulates the excitability and firing modes of thalamocortical (TC) neurons. In particular, the inhibition of two‐pore domain weakly inwardly rectifying K+ channel (TWIK)‐related acid‐sensitive K+ (TASK) channels and TWIK‐related K+ (TREK) channels, as a consequence of the stimulation of muscarinic ACh receptors (MAChRs) which are coupled to phosphoinositide‐specific phospholipase C (PLCβ), induces a shift from burst to tonic firing. By using a whole cell patch‐clamp approach, the contribution of the membrane‐bound second messenger molecules phosphatidylinositol 4,5‐bisphosphate (PIP2) and diacylglycerol (DAG) acting downstream of PLCβ was probed. The standing outward current (ISO) was used to monitor the current through TASK and TREK channels in TC neurons. By exploiting different manoeuvres to change the intracellular PIP2 level in TC neurons, we here show that the scavenging of PIP2 (by neomycin) results in an increased muscarinic effect on ISO whereas increased availability of PIP2 (inclusion to the patch pipette; histone‐based carrier) decreased muscarinic signalling. The degree of muscarinic inhibition specifically depends on phosphatidylinositol phosphate (PIP) and PIP2 but no other phospholipids (phosphatidic acid, phosphatidylserine). The use of specific blockers revealed that PIP2 is targeting TREK but not TASK channels. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the inhibition of TASK channels is induced by the application of the DAG analogue 1‐oleoyl‐2‐acetyl‐sn‐glycerol (OAG). Under current clamp conditions the activation of MAChRs and PLCβ as well as the application of OAG resulted in membrane depolarization, while PIP2 application via histone carrier induced a hyperpolarization. These results demonstrate a differential role of PIP2 and DAG in K2P channel modulation in native neurons which allows a fine‐tuned inhibition of TREK (via PIP2 depletion) and TASK (via DAG) channels following MAChR stimulation.