Social media (SM) use is typically regarded as a technological tool which might negatively impact physical fitness and cognitive function, especially in critical developmental stages. In this opinion paper, we argue that specific forms of SM content might be beneficial for promoting motor skill acquisition and function. Furthermore, we suggest that SM use might be a promising innovative tool for educational purposes in optimizing skills not only in sports but also in academia. As a prerequisite, future research is needed to clarify the optimal type of content, its use, and how these parameters are affected by age. Therefore, longitudinal studies across the lifespan are necessary for a thorough understanding of the potential beneficial effects of SM use.

ABSTRACT Balance training underpins both sports performance and rehabilitation, while its efficacy depends on the amount of training and task difficulty. Here, we characterized neurophysiological changes accompanying the earliest phase of slackline‐specific balance acquisition within a closely matched active‐control design. For this purpose, 35 healthy, slackline‐naïve adults were randomized to a slackline intervention or a time‐matched active control. Before and after training, participants completed slackline single‐leg stance with eyes open (SL‐EO) and eyes closed (SL‐EC), resting‐state electroencephalography (EEG), and tibial‐nerve somatosensory‐evoked potentials (SEP). EEG band‐specific power was quantified after aperiodic correction and resulting change scores were analyzed with non‐parametric mixed models. The intervention group showed larger gains in SL‐EO than control, whereas SL‐EC showed no between‐group difference. Resting‐state EEG exhibited a band‐specific pattern with a greater post‐training increase in beta power in the intervention group, whereas alpha and theta showed no selective group effects. SEP amplitudes did not change pre‐post in either group. Finally, within the intervention group, beta power change did not correlate with individual performance gains. Overall, the present study revealed that resting‐state beta power was sensitive to the earliest phase of slackline‐specific balance acquisition, whereas tibial‐nerve SEP amplitudes remained unchanged. These findings suggest that resting beta power may capture acute post‐practice sensorimotor network changes after a single session of slackline training. Future work should assess generalizability across tasks and populations, combine task‐based EEG with resting measures to link brain state to on‐task control, and track if SEP changes arise over practice to refine models of balance learning.

Intermittent palm (PC) and sole cooling (SC) are emerging techniques with potential ergogenic effects under high-intensity and fatiguing exercise conditions. However, evidence regarding their efficacy remains inconclusive. This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to summarize the acute effects of intermittent PC and SC applied during inter-set rest periods on resistance training volume and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) in healthy individuals. A systematic literature search in the electronic databases Cochrane, PubMed, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science identified 10 studies (n = 182 participants, 40 female, mean age range: 19 - 26 years). Effect sizes (Cohen's dz) were calculated for each study and corrected for small sample bias (Hedges g). Meta-analyses were conducted using a random-effects model and an inverse variance method. PC and SC were applied for 1–3 min (2.3 ± 0.7 min) with temperatures ranging from 10 to 15 °C (12.0 ± 2.2 °C). Based on the current literature, no significant effect of PC or SC on resistance training volume was observed (n = 12, g = 0.22, 95%CI [-0.27, 0.72], p = 0.345), with high heterogeneity values indicating considerable variability among studies. Furthermore, no significant effect of PC or SC on RPE was found (n = 9, g = 0.10, 95%CI [-0.15, 0.34], p = 0.389). Based on current evidence, intermittent PC and SC cannot be generally recommended for resistance training volume enhancement.

Paired-pulse somatosensory evoked potentials (ppSEPs) offer a robust, non-invasive measure of inhibitory interactions in the human somatosensory cortex. The impact of long-term habitual physical activity on gating mechanisms remains poorly understood. This study quantified whether regular physical activity over extended periods modulates paired-pulse suppression (PPS) after tibial nerve (TN) stimulation and whether PPS relates to weekly training volume. Fifty-nine healthy participants (29 female; 22.4 ± 3.9 years) were analyzed. Physical activity over the previous two years was assessed by questionnaire and participants were classified as physically active (PA, n = 38) if they reported more than 1.25 h/week of regular training during this period. All others were classified as non-active (NA, n = 21) participants. Single-pulse (spSEP) and ppSEPs were recorded bilaterally after suprathreshold TN stimulation using a Cz’–Fz montage. Across all participants tested, significant PPS was observed for N30/P40, P40/N50 and N50/P60 ppSEP amplitudes after both left and right TN stimulation. However, PPS and spSEP did not differ between PA and NA. PPS in right N30/P40 correlated negatively with weekly training hours in PA. No such associations were found for P40/N50 or N50/P60, nor for left-sided PPS measures. Long-term physical activity does not seem to modulate SEP components or PPS after TN stimulation. However, training volume within PA was associated with PPS of the N30/P40 amplitude after right TN stimulation, indicating a potential selective dose-dependent modulation. Longitudinal studies are needed to establish causality, explain side-specific effects, and determine the behavioral relevance for sensorimotor performance.

Balance represents a fundamental motor ability whose considerable inter-individual variability and susceptibility to prior experience and task specificity complicate its assessment. Neurophysiological measures such as electroencephalography (EEG) and somatosensory-evoked potentials (SEPs) offer complementary windows into the sensorimotor mechanisms that underpin balance control and may be associated with individual differences in acute performance levels. In the present study, 25 healthy adults naïve to slacklining underwent tibial nerve SEP recordings using single-pulse and paired-pulse paradigms on both dominant and non-dominant legs to assess excitation and inhibition in the sensorimotor cortex. This was followed by five minutes of resting-state EEG. Participants then completed three balance tasks on a slackline: single leg stance with eyes open, single leg stance with eyes closed, and a successive steps task, on each leg. SEP amplitude and paired-pulse inhibition, as well as resting-state theta power were taken as neurophysiological measures. Analysis revealed a correlation between lower resting-state theta power and superior single leg stance performance with eyes-open on the non-dominant leg, while no significant relationships emerged for the eyes-closed or successive steps tasks. Furthermore, neither SEP amplitudes nor paired-pulse inhibition were significantly associated with any balance outcome. Collectively, the present findings indicate that resting-state theta power could be a non-invasive marker of acute balance performance. These results underscore the promise of spectral EEG measures for acute assessment of specific sensorimotor capacity and suggest that future research should explore their utility in clinical rehabilitation and performance monitoring.

Human movements must constantly be adapted due to changing internal and external conditions in our environment. The underlying neuronal mechanisms that are responsible for motor adaptations have so far mainly been investigated in highly controlled laboratory scenarios using simple motor tasks. However, because motor adaptations in daily life and sports entail more complex processes involving several cognitive components and strategic adjustments, results from such highly controlled settings only allow restricted conclusions and do not capture neuronal processing in everyday life scenarios. Hence, we studied 56 participants using a table tennis paradigm to unravel cortical activation during motor adaptation in a sport-specific setting using functional NIRS. Furthermore, we wanted to investigate whether cortical activation during motor adaptation is influenced by the temporal order of perturbations (serial vs. randomized practice). Our findings revealed brain areas such as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and primary sensory cortex, left supplementary motor cortex and left primary motor cortex, as well as right superior parietal cortex and right inferior parietal cortex, exhibited dynamic alterations in their activation as motor adaptation progressed. Specifically, hemodynamic response alterations generally increased during early adaptation and decreased as motor adaptation progressed. On the other hand, no differential changes in cortical brain processing were observed with serial and randomized practice. Based on our findings, we can confirm and extent theoretical models and laboratory evidence of motor adaptation using a sport-specific motor task.

Studies on motor adaptation aim to better understand the remarkable, largely implicit capacity of humans to adjust to changing environmental conditions. So far, this phenomenon has mainly been investigated in highly controlled laboratory setting, allowing only limited conclusions and consequences for everyday life scenarios. Natural movement tasks performed under externally valid conditions would provide important support on the transferability of recent laboratory findings. Therefore, one major goal of the current study was to create and assess a new table tennis paradigm mapping motor adaptation in a more natural and sport-specific setting. High-speed cinematographic measurements were used to determine target accuracy in a motor adaptation table tennis paradigm in 30 right-handed participants. In addition, we investigated if motor adaptation was affected by temporal order of perturbations (serial vs. random practice). In summary, we were able to confirm and reproduce typical motor adaptation effects in a sport-specific setting. We found, according to previous findings, an increase in target errors with perturbation onset that decreased during motor adaptation. Furthermore, we observed an increase in target errors with perturbation offset (after-effect) that decrease subsequently during washout phase. More importantly, this motor adaptation phenomenon did not differ when comparing serial vs. random perturbation conditions.

AbstractBlood‐flow‐restriction exercise (BFREX) is an emerging method to stimulate hypertrophy and strength without the need for high training loads. However, the impact of BFREX concerning somatosensory processing remains elusive. Here, we aimed to investigate the acute effects of BFREX on somatosensory processing in healthy adults using somatosensory‐evoked potentials (SEPs). Twelve healthy adults (23.0 ± 3.2 years of age) participated in a randomized crossover experiment, consisting of three experimental conditions: application of blood‐flow restriction without resistance exercise (BFR), resistance exercise for multiple sets with blood‐flow restriction (BFREX) and traditional resistance exercise (unilateral biceps curls) for multiple sets without BFR (EX). SEP measurements were recorded bilaterally before, during and after each condition. SEP amplitudes were largely unaffected during various occlusive conditions. Nonetheless, our findings demonstrate a significant decrease in N9 latencies for condition EX compared with BFR, specifically in the exercised limb (mean difference = −0.26 ms, SE = 0.06 ms, P = 0.002, d = −0.335). This study provides evidence on the lack of impact of BFREX within the somatosensory domain, according to current guidelines. As an alternative method to traditional high‐load resistance exercise, BFREX might offer a considerable upside for rehabilitative settings by reducing strain on the musculoskeletal system.

Intermittent palm (PC) and sole cooling (SC) are proposed ergogenic methods for enhancing exercise performance during high-intensity and fatiguing conditions. However, findings in the literature regarding its positive effect remain inconclusive. This study aimed at investigating the effects of intermittent PC and SC compared to no cooling (NC) on acute training volume during resistance exercise, particularly focusing on the total number of repetitions (TR) performed. Three separate randomized crossover protocols, incorporating commonly practiced resistance exercises (Protocol 1: pullups; Protocol 2: pushups; Protocol 3: leg extensions), were conducted, enrolling healthy, physically active adults (overall sample: n = 41 (12 female), age: 23.9 ± 4.0 years (mean ± SD), height: 174.4 ± 9.5 cm, body mass: 69.3 ± 12.4 kg). During Protocol 3, tympanic temperature (TT), rate of perceived exertion (RPE), and electromyography (EMG) of quadriceps muscles were additionally assessed for SC. PC resulted in less TR compared to NC in Protocol 1 (p < 0.001). Protocol 2 and 3 did not reveal significant ergogenic benefits of PC or SC compared to NC (p > 0.05). Furthermore, SC had no effect on TT, RPE, or EMG amplitudes (all p > 0.05). The inconsistent findings suggest that intermittent PC and SC might have limited effectiveness in enhancing training volume during resistance exercise in physically active adults. Future research should examine various resistance training protocols under controlled conditions, and incorporate comprehensive physiological measurements to elucidate the potential benefits and mechanisms of intermittent cooling in resistance exercise contexts.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive brain stimulation technique which was found to have a positive modulatory effect on online sequence acquisition or offline motor consolidation, depending on the relative role of the associated brain region. Primary motor regions (M1) and dorsolateral prefrontal cortices (DLPFC) have both been related to sequential learning. However, research so far did not systematically disentangle their differential roles in online and offline learning especially in more complex sequential paradigms. In this study, the influence of anodal M1 leg area-tDCS and anodal DLPFC-tDCS applied during complex sequential learning (online and offline) was investigated using a complex whole body serial reaction time task (CWB-SRTT) in 42 healthy volunteers. TDCS groups did not differ from sham tDCS group regarding their response and reaction time (online) and also not in terms of overnight consolidation (offline). Sequence specific learning and the number of recalled items also did not differ between groups. Results may be related to unspecific parameters such as timing of the stimulation or current intensity but can also be attributed to the relative role of M1 and DLPFC during early complex learning. Taken together, the current study provides preliminary evidence that M1 leg area or DLPFC modulation by means of tDCS does not improve complex sequential skill learning. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Understanding motor learning is helpful to deepen our knowledge about the human ability to acquire new skills. Complex sequential learning tasks have only been studied, sparsely, but are particularly mimicking challenges of daily living. The present study studied early motor learning in a complex serial reaction time task while transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) was either applied to leg primary motor cortex or bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. TDCS did not affect sequential learning, neither directly during performance nor in terms of sequence consolidation. Results provide preliminary information that M1 or bilateral DLPFC modulation does not improve early complex motor learning.

Athletic development centers on optimizing performance, including technical skills and fundamental motor abilities such as strength and speed. Parameters such as maximum contraction force and rate of force development, influence athletic success, although performance gains become harder to achieve as athletic abilities increase. Non-invasive transcranial direct current stimulation of the cerebellum (CB-tDCS) has been used successfully to increase force production in novices, although the potential effects in athletes remain unexplored. The present study examined the effects of CB-tDCS on maximum isometric voluntary contraction force (MVCiso) and isometric rate of force development (RFDiso) during a bench press task in well-trained athletes. 21 healthy, male, strength-trained athletes participated in a randomized, sham-controlled, double-blinded crossover design. Each participant completed the isometric bench press (iBP) task on two separate days, with at least 5 days between sessions, while receiving either CB-tDCS or sham stimulation. Electromyography (EMG) recordings of three muscles involved in iBP were acquired bilaterally to uncover differences in neuromuscular activation and agonist-antagonist co-contraction between conditions. Contrary to our hypothesis, no significant differences in MVCiso and RFDiso were observed between CB-tDCS and sham conditions. Furthermore, no tDCS-induced differences in neuromuscular activation or agonist-antagonist co-contraction were revealed. Here, we argue that the effects of CB-tDCS on force production appear to depend on the individual’s training status. Future research should study individual differences in tDCS responses between athletes and novices, as well as the potential of high-definition tDCS for precise brain region targeting to potentially enhance motor performance in athletic populations.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive brain stimulation technique which was found to have a positive modulatory effect on online sequence acquisition or offline motor consolidation, depending on the relative role of the associated brain region. Primary motor regions (M1) and dorsolateral prefrontal cortices (DLPFC) have both been related to sequential learning. However, research so far did not systematically disentangle their differential roles in online and offline learning especially in more complex sequential paradigms. In this study, the influence of M1-tDCS and DLPFC-tDCS on complex sequential learning (online and offline) was investigated using a complex whole body serial reaction time task (CWB-SRTT) in 42 healthy volunteers. TDCS groups did not differ from sham tDCS group regarding their total time to complete the sequence and reaction time (online) and also not in terms of over-night consolidation (offline). Results may be related to unspecific parameters such as timing of the stimulation or current intensity but can also be attributed to the relative role of M1 and DLPFC during early complex learning. Future studies should consider investigating neural parameters during early complex CWB-SRTT learning to gain information on changes in neural activation within sequence acquisition with a specific focus on M1 and DLPFC.

There is a growing interest to understand the neural underpinnings of high-level sports performance including expertise-related differences in sport-specific skills. Here, we aimed to investigate whether expertise level and task complexity modulate the cortical hemodynamics of table tennis players. 35 right-handed table tennis players (17 experts/18 novices) were recruited and performed two table tennis strokes (forehand and backhand) and a randomized combination of them. Cortical hemodynamics, as a proxy for cortical activity, were recorded using functional near-infrared spectroscopy, and the behavioral performance (i.e., target accuracy) was assessed via video recordings. Expertise- and task-related differences in cortical hemodynamics were analyzed using nonparametric threshold-free cluster enhancement. In all conditions, table tennis experts showed a higher target accuracy than novices. Furthermore, we observed expertise-related differences in widespread clusters compromising brain areas being associated with sensorimotor and multisensory integration. Novices exhibited, in general, higher activation in those areas as compared to experts. We also identified task-related differences in cortical activity including frontal, sensorimotor, and multisensory brain areas. The present findings provide empirical support for the neural efficiency hypothesis since table tennis experts as compared to novices utilized a lower amount of cortical resources to achieve superior behavioral performance. Furthermore, our findings suggest that the task complexity of different table tennis strokes is mirrored in distinct cortical activation patterns. Whether the latter findings can be useful to monitor or tailor sport-specific training interventions necessitates further investigations.

Transferring a unimanual motor skill to the untrained hand, a phenomenon known as cross-limb transfer, was shown to deteriorate as a function of age. While transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) ipsilateral to the trained hand facilitated cross-limb transfer in older adults, little is known about the contribution of the contralateral hemisphere to cross-limb transfer. In the present study, we investigated whether tDCS facilitates cross-limb transfer in older adults when applied over the motor cortex (M1) contralateral to the trained hand. Furthermore, the study aimed at investigating short-term recovery of tDCS-associated cross-limb transfer. In a randomized, double-blinded, sham-controlled setting, 30 older adults (67.0 ± 4.6 years, 15 female) performed a short grooved-pegboard training using their left hand, while anodal (a-tDCS) or sham-tDCS (s-tDCS) was applied over right M1 for 20 min. Left (LHtrained) - and right-hand (RHuntrained) performance was tested before and after training and in three recovery measures 15, 30 and 45 min after training. LHtrained performance improved during both a-tDCS and s-tDCS and improvements persisted during recovery measures for at least 45 min. RHuntrained performance improved only following a-tDCS but not after s-tDCS and outlasted the stimulation period for at least 45 min. Together, these data indicate that tDCS over the M1 contralateral to the trained limb is capable of enhancing cross-limb transfer in older adults, thus showing that cross-limb transfer is mediated not only by increased bi-hemispheric activation.

BackgroundTranscranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has emerged as a promising and feasible method to improve motor performance in healthy and clinical populations. However, the potential of tDCS to enhance sport-specific motor performance in athletes remains elusive.ObjectiveWe aimed at analyzing the acute effects of a single anodal tDCS session on sport-specific motor performance changes in athletes compared to sham.MethodsA systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted in the electronic databases PubMed, Web of Science, and SPORTDiscus. The meta-analysis was performed using an inverse variance method and a random-effects model. Additionally, two subgroup analyses were conducted (1) depending on the stimulated brain areas (primary motor cortex (M1), temporal cortex (TC), prefrontal cortex (PFC), cerebellum (CB)), and (2) studies clustered in subgroups according to different sports performance domains (endurance, strength, visuomotor skill).ResultsA total number of 19 studies enrolling a sample size of 258 athletes were deemed eligible for inclusion. Across all included studies, a significant moderate standardized mean difference (SMD) favoring anodal tDCS to enhance sport-specific motor performance could be observed. Subgroup analysis depending on cortical target areas of tDCS indicated a significant moderate SMD in favor of anodal tDCS compared to sham for M1 stimulation.ConclusionA single anodal tDCS session can lead to performance enhancement in athletes in sport-specific motor tasks. Although no definitive conclusions can be drawn regarding the modes of action as a function of performance domain or stimulation site, these results imply intriguing possibilities concerning sports performance enhancement through anodal M1 stimulation.

Low-intensity transcranial electrical stimulation (tES), including alternating or direct current stimulation, applies weak electrical stimulation to modulate the activity of brain circuits. Integration of tES with concurrent functional MRI (fMRI) allows for the mapping of neural activity during neuromodulation, supporting causal studies of both brain function and tES effects. Methodological aspects of tES-fMRI studies underpin the results, and reporting them in appropriate detail is required for reproducibility and interpretability. Despite the growing number of published reports, there are no consensus-based checklists for disclosing methodological details of concurrent tES-fMRI studies. The objective of this work was to develop a consensus-based checklist of reporting standards for concurrent tES-fMRI studies to support methodological rigor, transparency and reproducibility (ContES checklist). A two-phase Delphi consensus process was conducted by a steering committee (SC) of 13 members and 49 expert panelists through the International Network of the tES-fMRI Consortium. The process began with a circulation of a preliminary checklist of essential items and additional recommendations, developed by the SC on the basis of a systematic review of 57 concurrent tES-fMRI studies. Contributors were then invited to suggest revisions or additions to the initial checklist. After the revision phase, contributors rated the importance of the 17 essential items and 42 additional recommendations in the final checklist. The state of methodological transparency within the 57 reviewed concurrent tES-fMRI studies was then assessed by using the checklist. Experts refined the checklist through the revision and rating phases, leading to a checklist with three categories of essential items and additional recommendations: (i) technological factors, (ii) safety and noise tests and (iii) methodological factors. The level of reporting of checklist items varied among the 57 concurrent tES-fMRI papers, ranging from 24% to 76%. On average, 53% of checklist items were reported in a given article. In conclusion, use of the ContES checklist is expected to enhance the methodological reporting quality of future concurrent tES-fMRI studies and increase methodological transparency and reproducibility.

BACKGROUND:Somatosensory-evoked potentials (SEP) represent a non-invasive tool to assess neural responses elicited by somatosensory stimuli acquired via electrophysiological recordings. To date, there is no comprehensive evaluation of SEPs for the diagnostic investigation of exercise-induced functional neuroplasticity. This systematic review aims at highlighting the potential of SEP measurements as a diagnostic tool to investigate exercise-induced functional neuroplasticity of the sensorimotor system by reviewing studies comparing SEP parameters between athletes and healthy controls who are not involved in organized sports as well as between athlete cohorts of different sport disciplines. METHODS:A systematic literature search was conducted across three electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, and SPORTDiscus) by two independent researchers. Three hundred and ninety-seven records were identified, of which 10 cross-sectional studies were considered eligible. RESULTS:Differences in SEP amplitudes and latencies between athletes and healthy controls or between athletes of different cohorts as well as associations between SEP parameters and demographic/behavioral variables (years of training, hours of training per week & reaction time) were observed in seven out of 10 included studies. In particular, several studies highlight differences in short- and long-latency SEP parameters, as well as high-frequency oscillations (HFO) when comparing athletes and healthy controls. Neuroplastic differences in athletes appear to be modality-specific as well as dependent on training regimens and sport-specific requirements. This is exemplified by differences in SEP parameters of various athlete populations after stimulation of their primarily trained limb. CONCLUSION:Taken together, the existing literature suggests that athletes show specific functional neuroplasticity in the somatosensory system. Therefore, this systematic review highlights the potential of SEP measurements as an easy-to-use and inexpensive diagnostic tool to investigate functional neuroplasticity in the sensorimotor system of athletes. However, there are limitations regarding the small sample sizes and inconsistent methodology of SEP measurements in the studies reviewed. Therefore, future intervention studies are needed to verify and extend the conclusions drawn here.

Besides simple movement sequences, precise whole-body motor sequences are fundamental for top athletic performance. It has long been questioned whether athletes have an advantage when learning new whole-body motor sequences. In a previous study, we did not find any superior learning or transfer effects of strength and endurance athletes in a complex whole-body serial reaction time task (CWB-SRTT). In the present study, we aimed to extend this research by increasing the overlap of task requirements between CWB-SRTT and a specific sports discipline. For this purpose, we assessed differences between football players and non-athletes during motor sequence learning using CWB-SRTT. 15 non-athletes (CG) and 16 football players (FG) performed the CWB-SRTT over 2 days separated by one week. Median reaction times and movement times were analyzed as well as differences in sequence-specific CWB-SRTT learning rates and retention. Our findings did not reveal any differences in sequence-specific or non-sequence-specific improvement, nor retention rates between CG and FG. We speculate that this might relate to a predominately cognitive-induced learning effect during CWB-SRTT which negates the assumed motor advantage of the football players.

The ability to maintain balance is based on various processes of motor control in complex neural networks of subcortical and cortical brain structures. However, knowledge on brain processing during the execution of whole-body balance tasks is still limited. In the present study, we investigated brain activity during slacklining, a task with a high demand on balance capabilities, which is frequently used as supplementary training in various sports disciplines as well as for lower extremity prevention and rehabilitation purposes in clinical settings. We assessed hemodynamic response alterations in sensorimotor brain areas using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) during standing (ST) and walking (WA) on a slackline in 16 advanced slackliners. We expected to observe task-related differences between both conditions as well as associations between cortical activity and slacklining experience. While our results revealed hemodynamic response alterations in sensorimotor brain regions such as primary motor cortex (M1), premotor cortex (PMC), and supplementary motor cortex (SMA) during both conditions, we did not observe differential effects between ST and WA nor associations between cortical activity and slacklining experience. In summary, these findings provide novel insights into brain processing during a whole-body balance task and its relation to balance expertise. As maintaining balance is considered an important prerequisite in daily life and crucial in the context of prevention and rehabilitation, future studies should extend these findings by quantifying brain processing during task execution on a whole-brain level.

Static and dynamic balance abilities enable simple and complex movements and are determinants of top athletic performance. Balance abilities and their proficiency differ fundamentally with respect to age, gender, type of balance intervention, and type of sport. With this study, we aim to investigate whether 4weeks of dynamic balance training (DBT) improves static balance performance in school-aged gymnasts and football players. For this purpose, young male gymnasts (n=21) and male football players (n=20) completed an initial static balance assessment consisting of two one-legged stance (left and right foot) and two two-legged stance (eyes open and eyes closed) tasks. Subsequently, all participants underwent a 4-week intervention. DBT consisting of nine individual tasks was performed two times per week. Another static balance assessment followed 1day after the last training session and retention was assessed 2weeks later. Dynamic balance scores and total path length were analyzed via rank-based repeated measures designs using ANOVA-type statistics. The influence of factors GROUP and TIME on the static and dynamic balance performance was examined. Prior to DBT, young gymnasts showed better static balance performance than football players. However, after intervention, both groups improved in both one-legged stance tasks and also had high retention rates in these tasks. No significant improvements were seen in either group in the two-legged balance tests. Both groups improved in the dynamic balance tasks, although no differences in learning rates were evident. Our findings imply an inter-relationship between both static and dynamic balance components. Consequently, training regimes should include both balance components to facilitate early development of balance ability.