Several methods have been reported for treating avian antebrachial fractures, yet the quantitative information regarding their success is limited. This retrospective study applied data from raptors admitted to a wildlife rehabilitation center to provide metrics associated with the treatment of ulna fractures with an intact radius by either conservative management or a single surgical method: a type I external skeletal fixator tied in to an intramedullary pin (ESF IMP tie-in). Postfledging wild raptors with an ulna fracture admitted to The Raptor Center at the University of Minnesota College of Veterinary Medicine (St Paul, MN, USA) between January 1, 2007, and December 31, 2017, that survived for at least 7 days after admission were included in the study. Information regarding signalment, fracture characteristics, treatment method, outcome, and complications were recorded. The study included 110 raptors representing 15 species. The majority of birds (69%, 76/110) were treated with conservative management. Conservative management was used more often in cases of chronic (P = .02) and closed (P = .02) fractures, whereas fractures with poor alignment at the time of admission were frequently treated through surgical means (P=.001). Alignment was more likely to improve with an ESF IMP tie-in (P=1.01 ×10-9). The majority of cases (65%, 72/110) had a successful outcome. Birds with closed fractures were more likely to have a successful outcome (P=.03). Birds in which fracture alignment became exacerbated with either treatment method were more likely to have a poor outcome (P=.002). The results of this retrospective study found that conservative management and surgical fixation by the ESF IMP tie-in technique are both viable treatment options for ulna fractures with an intact radius in raptors. The choice of treatment method is dependent on the clinician's assessment of the fracture characteristics and individual patient.

Minnesota Environment and Natural Resources Trust Fund as recommended by the Legislative-Citizen Commission on Minnesota Resources (LCCMR)

Domestic chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) were exposed to imidacloprid by gavage once daily for 7 consecutive days at 0, 0.03, 0.34, 3.42, 10.25, and 15.5 mg/kg/day (n = 20 per group; 5 6-week-old males, 5 6-week-old females, 5 9-week-old males, and 5 9-week-old females). The severity and duration of neurobehavioral abnormalities were recorded. Components of the innate and adaptive immune system were assessed with 7 standard functional assays. Temporary neurobehavioral abnormalities were observed in a dose-dependent manner, including muscle tremors, ataxia, and depressed mentation. Based upon mean clinical severity scores, the no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) was 3.42 mg/kg/day, and the lowest observed adverse effect level (LOAEL) was 10.25 mg/kg/day. The effective dose value for the presence of any neurobehavioral abnormalities in 50% of the test group (ED50) was 4.62 +/- 0.98 mg/kg/day. The ED50 for an adjusted score that included both severity and duration of neurobehavioral abnormalities was 11.24 +/- 9.33 mg/kg/day. These ED50 values are equivalent to a 1 kg bird ingesting 29 or 70 imidacloprid treated soybean seeds respectively. Immunotoxicity was not documented, possible causes include the assays were insensitive, relevant immune functions were not examined, or imidacloprid is not immunotoxic at this dosing schedule in this species. Neurobehavioral abnormalities were a more sensitive indicator of the sublethal effects of imidacloprid than immunotoxicity.

Distraction osteogenesis was used in 2 wild raptor patients for the repair of tibiotarsal fractures. The first case was a hatching year female peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) admitted with an open oblique right distal tibiotarsal fracture. The fracture was surgically managed with the external skeletal fixator intramedullary pin tie-in technique (ESF-IM pin tie-in). Appropriate healing of the fracture site occurred with the ESF-IM pin tie-in. However, there was significant pelvic limb shortening of the affected leg, and the bird consequently developed pododermatitis on the contralateral foot. The second case was an adult female great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) that was admitted with a closed, partially healed, overriding right tibiotarsal fracture. Because of the advanced stage of this fracture, which presented with a fibrous callus, and the already apparent pelvic limb shortening, the ESF-IM pin tie-in was not used. Both patients were fitted with a circular external skeletal fixator (CESF), and distraction osteogenesis was performed until the length of the pelvic limb was deemed anatomically adequate. It is critical that rehabilitated raptors be released without any physical conditions that may reduce their ability to survive and reproduce in the wild. Pelvic limb shortening can potentially predispose a raptor patient to pododermatitis, even with fatal consequences, in both captive and wild environments. The orthopedic technique used here proved useful to repair the limb shortening in both raptor cases, and each bird fully recovered and was released.

Collision with wind turbines is a conservation concern for eagles with population abundance implications. The development of acoustic alerting technologies to deter eagles from entering hazardous air spaces is a potentially significant mitigation strategy to diminish associated morbidity and mortality risks. As a prelude to the engineering of deterrence technologies, auditory function was assessed in bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), as well as in red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis). Auditory brainstem responses (ABRs) to a comprehensive battery of clicks and tone bursts varying in level and frequency were acquired to evaluate response thresholds, as well as suprathreshold response characteristics of wave I of the ABR, which represents the compound potential of the VIII cranial nerve. Sensitivity curves exhibited an asymmetric convex shape similar to those of other avian species, response latencies decreased exponentially with increasing stimulus level and response amplitudes grew with level in an orderly manner. Both species were responsive to a frequency band at least four octaves wide, with a most sensitive frequency of 2 kHz, and a high-frequency limit of approximately 5.7 kHz in bald eagles and 8 kHz in red-tailed hawks. Findings reported here provide a framework within which acoustic alerting signals might be developed.

Most studies examining bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) exposure to lead (Pb) have focused on adults that ingested spent Pb ammunition during the fall hunting season, often at clinical or lethal levels. We sampled live bald eagle nestlings along waterbodies to quantify Pb concentrations in 3 national park units and 2 nearby study areas in the western Great Lakes region. We collected 367 bald eagle nestling feather samples over 8 years during spring 2006-2015 and 188 whole blood samples over 4 years during spring 2010-2015. We used Tobit regression models to quantify relationships between Pb concentrations in nestling feathers and blood using study area, year, and nestling attributes as covariates. Pb in nestling feather samples decreased from 2006 to 2015, but there was no trend for Pb in blood samples. Pb concentrations in nestling feather and blood samples were significantly higher in study areas located closer to and within urban areas. Pb in feather and blood samples from the same nestling was positively correlated. Pb in feathers increased with nestling age, but this relationship was not observed for blood. Our results reflect how Pb accumulates in tissues as nestlings grow, with Pb in feathers and blood indexing exposure during feather development and before sampling, respectively. Some nestlings had Pb concentrations in blood that suggested a greater risk to sublethal effects from Pb exposure. Our data provides baselines for Pb concentrations in feathers and blood of nestling bald eagles from a variety of waterbody types spanning remote, lightly populated, and human-dominated landscapes.

Lead toxicity due to ingestion of spent ammunition is an ongoing cause of mortality in bald eagles. While gross and histologic lesions of lead intoxication have been described in a few individuals of this species, the prevalence of lesions is underreported. A retrospective study of 93 bald eagles with severe lead intoxication was performed to describe the associated lesions and their prevalence and to compare the lesions with blood, liver, kidney, and/or bone lead concentrations. Gross lesions associated with lead toxicity were most frequent within the heart (51/93 birds) and consisted of multifocal myocardial pallor and rounding of the apex. Within the brain, gross lesions included petechiae or hemorrhagic necrosis (13/93 birds). Histologic lesions compatible with lead toxicity occurred within the heart (76/93 birds), brain (59/93 birds), and eyes (24/87 birds). Lead toxicity in bald eagles is characterized by fibrinoid necrosis of small- to medium-caliber arteries, most commonly affecting the heart, brain, and eyes. Gross and histologic lesions are consistent with ischemia caused by a primary vascular injury. A blood lead concentration of greater than 4 ppm and markedly elevated liver lead concentrations were associated with a greater likelihood of lesions in the heart. Severe lead intoxication is frequently associated with lesions that are histologically detectable in bald eagles. The presence of fibrinoid arterial necrosis and parenchymal degeneration, necrosis, and/or hemorrhage within the heart, brain, and/or eyes is suggestive of lead toxicity in bald eagles and warrants evaluation of liver or bone lead concentrations.

According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (2018), fatalities associated with wind turbine collisions have been reported for more than 200 bird species. Furthermore, based on statistical models of industry growth it has been suggested that as many as 1.4 million bird fatalities/year could be realized if the Department of Energy (DOE) wind energy goals are achieved; i.e., wind energy supplying 20% of total U.S. energy needs by 2030. Although passerine bird fatalities are most commonly reported, raptors that hunt by day, including bald and golden eagles, are the second most frequent casualties of turbine collisions. To address this concern, deterrence protocols designed to discourage eagles from encroaching into wind energy facility air spaces and thereby constrain the degree of risk to which birds are exposed are under investigation. As part of an effort to guide development of acoustic deterrence protocols, we report that the responsive frequency range of golden eagles is similar to that reported for bald eagles; upper and lower frequency limits of hearing are approximately 6.0 and 0.3 kHz, respectively. Suprathreshold response profiles measured in golden eagles exhibit standard features that will be compared with those of bald eagles. [Work supported by DOE grant #DE-EE0007881.]

Injury and mortality statistics suggest that bald eagles entering the air space of wind energy facilities face considerable risk. To mitigate the hazard, acoustic deterrent systems designed to discourage entry into such hazardous air spaces are under consideration. In this study, the acoustic properties of a collection of call types within the eagle vocal repertoire are reported as a first step in a larger program of study designed to assess the deterrent capacity of the bird’s natural vocal utterances. To that end, calls were recorded from bald eagles housed in the Raptor Center at the University of Minnesota. Based on preliminary acoustic analyses, at least five calls were identified and are referred to here as peal/scream, chatter/cackle, snort, squeal and grunt. With the exception of the low frequency grunt, calls were uniformly high pitched, tonal in nature, exhibited harmonic spectral structure, and they were generally complex, exhibiting distinct nonlinear characteristics. In this presentation, the spectrotemporal properties of each call type will be described with the goal of generating an acoustic repository to enable the consistent classification of calls to be tested for their potential as deterrence signals. [This work was supported by Department of Energy grant #DE-EE0007881.]

ABSTRACT Lead poisoning is a threat to birds, particularly scavenging birds of prey. With the availability of portable lead‐testing kits, an increasing number of field researchers are testing wild‐caught birds, in situ , for lead poisoning. We describe guidelines for evaluation of lead toxicity in wild raptors by outlining field testing of blood‐lead concentrations, presenting criteria for removing a lead‐poisoned bird from the wild for treatment, and suggesting strategies for effective treatment of lead intoxicated raptors. Field testing of birds is most commonly accomplished via portable electrochemical analysis of blood; visual observation of condition alone may provide insufficient evidence upon which to make a decision about lead poisoning. Our intended audience is not only the avian research community, but also rehabilitation facilities that may receive apparently uninjured birds. Best practices suggest that birds whose blood‐lead levels are <40 μg/dL be released back to the wild as soon as possible after capture. The decision to release or treat birds with blood‐lead levels between 40 μg/dL and 60 μg/dL should be made based on the presence of clinical signs of poisoning and relevant biological characteristics (e.g., breeding status). Finally, birds with blood‐lead levels >60 μg/dL are potentially lethally poisoned and best served if removed from the wild for appropriate treatment at a licensed rehabilitation facility and later released. We present guidelines for decision‐making when treating lead poisoning of wild raptors. Future work based on experimental studies will clarify the role of lead poisoning for specific species and be important to refine these guidelines to improve effectiveness. © 2017 The Wildlife Society.

Ongoing occurrence of elevated levels of lead in bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) following the ban on lead shot for waterfowl hunting led us to hypothesize that spent lead from ammunition, which is present in field residues of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), represented a source of lead exposure in eagles. We conducted a case-control study using data from 1,277 bald eagles admitted for rehabilitation from January 1996 through December 2009. A multivariate logistic regression model was used to predict the odds of elevated lead levels using admission date in relation to deer hunting season, recovery location in relation to deer hunting zones, and age as predictors. We also assessed mean liver copper concentrations from eagles with elevated lead levels and from eagles with background lead levels, because most high velocity rifl e bullets that are used for deer hunting are jacketed in copper. We found 334 bald eagles with elevated lead levels out of 1,277 bald eagles we examined. We detected significantly increased odds for elevated lead levels based on season (late fall and early winter), deer hunting rifle zone, and age (adult birds). The mean liver copper concentration was higher (P = 0.02) in eagles with elevated lead levels. These combined results supported our hypothesis that eagles are acquiring lead from hunter-shot deer. Further research is needed to determine whether this exposure to lead is having a population-level impact.

Aspergillosis is a common fungal infection in both wild and pet birds. Although effective antifungal medications are available, treatment of aspergillosis can require months of medication administration, which entails stressful handling one or more times per day. This study examined the delivery of the antifungal drugs itraconazole, voriconazole, and terbinafine to Japanese quail ( Coturnix japonica ) via an impregnated implant. Implants contained 0.5, 3, 8, or 24 mg of itraconazole, voriconazole, or terbinafine. The implants were administered subcutaneously over the dorsum and between the scapulae. Blood was collected from birds before and 2, 7, 21, 42, and 56 days after implant placement. Plasma was analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography for concentrations of itraconazole, voriconazole, or terbinafine, as appropriate. During the course of the study, targeted terbinafine concentrations were achieved in some birds at various time points, but concentrations were inconsistent. Itraconazole and voriconazole concentrations were also inconsistent and did not reach targeted concentrations. Currently, the implant examined in this study cannot be recommended for treatment of aspergillosis in avian species.

Avian scavengers, such as bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), can be exposed to lead through the consumption of spent lead from ammunition in carcasses of animals shot with lead-based projectiles. Few studies have examined the degree of bullet fragmentation in viscera (offal) of game mammals. Our objective was to quantify the number of bullet fragments deposited in sheep carcasses shot with different types of lead and lead-free, high-velocity centerfire rifle bullets and with lead projectiles fired from shotguns and muzzleloader rifles marketed for hunting white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). We hypothesized that after controlling for velocity, angle of entry, distance from target, and shot placement (thoracic region), most of the bullet fragments would be deposited in the impact zone (heart and lungs). After radiographic examination of all viscera from each carcass, we detected metal fragments in 96% of the viscera and found that metal fragments were deposited in greater quantities in the abdominal viscera (organs caudal to the diaphragm) compared to the thoracic viscera (heart and lungs). Additionally, bullets fired from the centerfire rifle fragmented more than the projectiles fired from the shotgun and muzzleloader rifle. Rapid-expansion lead bullets fragmented more than controlled-expansion lead bullets and lead-free bullets. However, 1 type of controlled-expansion bullet that is comprised almost entirely of lead and advertised to retain >90% of its weight, fragmented similarly to the rapid expansion lead bullets. We observed lead fragments produced by centerfire rifle bullets and shotgun and muzzleloader projectiles present in sheep carcasses and conclude that lead is made available to scavengers from the distribution of lead fragments lodged in the carcasses of game through viscera left in the field by hunters.To eliminate this type of lead exposure, shooters must employ the use of lead-free projectiles or completely remove the remains of shot animals from the field.

Birds are an anomaly among vertebrates as they are remarkably long-lived despite having naturally high blood glucose and metabolic rates. For mammals, hyperglycemia leads to oxidative stress and protein glycation. In contrast, many studies have shown that domestic and wild birds are relatively resistant to these glucose-mediated pathologies. Surprisingly very little research has examined protein glycation in birds of prey, which by nature consume a diet high in protein and fat that promotes gluconeogenesis. The purpose of this study was to evaluate protein glycation and antioxidant concentrations in serum samples from several birds of prey (bald eagle (BAEA), red-tailed hawk (RTHA), barred owl (BAOW), great horned owl (GHOW)) as protein glycation can accelerate oxidative stress and vice versa. Serum glucose was measured using a commercially available assay, native albumin glycation was measured by mass spectrometry and various antioxidants (uric acid, vitamin E, retinol and several carotenoids) were measured by high performance liquid chromatography. Although glucose concentrations were not significantly different between species (p=0.340), albumin glycation was significantly higher (p=0.004) in BAEA (23.67±1.90%) and BAOW (24.28±1.43%) compared to RTHA (14.31±0.63%). Of the antioxidants examined, lutein was significantly higher in BAOW (p=0.008). BAEA had the highest beta-cryptoxanthin and beta-carotene concentrations (p<0.005). The high concentrations of antioxidants in these birds of prey relative to other birds likely helps protect from complications that may otherwise arise from having high glucose and protein glycation.

Lead poisoning of scavenging raptors occurs primarily via consumption of game animal carcasses containing lead, which peaks during fall firearm hunting seasons. We hypothesized that snowfall would mitigate exposure by concealing carcasses. We categorized blood lead level (BLL) for a subsample of Bald Eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) from the Upper Mississippi River Valley and described BLL with respect to age, sex, and snowfall. We captured Bald Eagles overwintering in the Upper Mississippi River Valley (n=55) between December 1999 and January 2002. Individual BLL ranged from nondetectable to 335 μg/dL, with 73% of the samples testing positive for acute exposure to lead. Eagle BLL did not significantly differ between age or sex, but levels were higher immediately following the hunting season, and they were lower when the previous month's snowfall was greater than 11 cm. This study suggests a window of time between the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) hunting season and the onset of snow when the population experienced peak exposure to lead. Combining these findings with existing research, we offer a narrative of the annual lead exposure cycle of Upper Mississippi River Valley Bald Eagles. These temporal associations are necessary considerations for accurate collection and interpretation of BLL.

Six bald eagles with severe, acute lead poisoning based on blood lead values were analyzed by Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) of the brain and histopathology. The aims of the study were to use MRI to locate brain lesions and correlate the changes in MRI signal with the histological character of the lesions at necropsy. All of the bald eagles presented with neurologic and non-neurologic signs suggestive of severe lead poisoning and had blood lead levels in excess of 1.0ppm. Areas of change in image intensity in the brainstem, midbrain and cerebellum were detected in the MRI scans. Histopathology confirmed the presence of all suspected lesions. The character of the lesions suggested vascular damage as the primary insult. MRI was useful for detecting lesions and defining their three-dimensional distribution and extent. Future studies are needed to evaluate the utility of MRI for detection of lesions in less severely lead poisoned eagles and determining prognosis for treatment.

Ocular lesions are common in red-tailed hawks with West Nile (WN) disease. These lesions consist of pectenitis, choroidal or retinal inflammation, or retinal necrosis, but detailed investigation of the ocular lesions is lacking. Postmortem examination of the eyes of 16 red-tailed hawks with naturally acquired WN disease and 3 red-tailed hawks without WN disease was performed using histopathology, immunohistochemistry for West Nile virus (WNV) antigen, glial fibrillary acid protein, cleaved caspase-3, and the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick-end labeling method. Retinal lesions were classified as type I or type II lesions. Type I lesions were characterized by lymphoplasmacytic infiltrates in the subjacent choroid with degeneration limited to the outer retina (type Ia lesion) or with degeneration and necrosis of the outer retina or outer and inner retina (type Ib lesion) while retinal collapse, atrophy, and scarring were hallmarks of type II lesions. Type II retinal lesions were associated with a more pronounced choroiditis. Although not statistically significant, WNV antigen tended to be present in larger quantity in type Ib lesions. Type I lesions are considered acute while type II lesions are chronic. The development of retinal lesions was associated with the presence of an inflammatory infiltrate in the choroid. A breakdown of the blood-retina barrier is suspected to be the main route of infection of the retina. Within the retina, virus appeared to spread via both neuronal and Müller cell processes.