We report an observation of a Rattus norvegicus (Brown Rat) capturing and killing a Tamias striatus (Eastern Chipmunk) in rural western Massachusetts. This documentation of predation on an active animal suggests that the potential for predation by rats to affect some small-mammal populations may be underestimated.

We assessed habitat occupancy and distribution of principal tiger (Panthera tigris) ungulate prey species to assess factors affecting their occurrence and their potential contribution to low tiger presence in the core part of the Hukaung Valley Wildlife Sanctuary, in northern Myanmar. We surveyed for signs on 1,651 km of transects partitioned into 554 sampling units between November 2007 and May 2008. By incorporating seven environmental and four social covariates, we predicted habitat occupancy rates of 0.76 for gaur (Bos gaurus), 0.91 for sambar (Rusa unicolor), 0.57 for wild pigs (Sus scrofa), and 0.89 for northern red muntjac (Muntiacus vaginalis). Overall, shorter Euclidean distances to ranger stations and trails, decreased stream density, and broadleaved evergreen/semi-deciduous forest and relatively rare rain-fed cropland habitat occurrence positively influenced prey habitat occupancy; conversely, shorter Euclidean distances to villages, roads, and streams, higher elevations, and occurrence of mixed broadleaved and needle-leaved forest habitat negatively influenced occupancy. In addition, Euclidean distance to ranger stations, trails, and roads positively affected species detections, whereas shorter Euclidean distance to villages and streams, high elevations, and high precipitation negatively affected detections. Results indicated that all four prey species were relatively well-distributed through the Sanctuary core area, but comparisons with indices of abundance elsewhere suggest that prey density was low and would not likely support many tigers.

Turtles are among the most threatened vertebrate groups, and reconstruction of population and distributional trends can be important for evaluating their status and defining conservation targets. Using a two-phase modeling approach along with occurrence records and field surveys, our objectives were to: estimate the potential and current distributions of the wood turtle (Glyptemys insculpta), a semi-terrestrial fluvial specialist of range-wide conservation concern; assess how climate, geomorphology, and land-use relate to its distribution; and estimate habitat loss. Using 1061 occurrences in the northeastern US with stream geomorphology and climate data, we created distribution models at sub-regional scales to estimate that 24% of stream km in the region are potentially suitable for wood turtles. Suitable stream habitat is generally lower gradient, higher sinuosity, and higher flow than random, but varies significantly by subregion, suggesting that distribution or habitat models built at the regional or range-wide level may miss important local variation in habitat and climatic needs at finer scales. We then used landscape composition at multiple spatial scales to predict results from standardized field surveys from 78 sites across 9 states to estimate habitat loss. We estimate that 58% of potential habitat is degraded based on landscape composition. Results support previous observations of decline and habitat loss in the wood turtle, driven by landscape degradation at scales larger than the typical home range, necessitating conservation intervention at multiple spatial scales, and underscoring the importance of models that address locally varying and scale-dependent relationships between species and habitats.

Freshwater turtles and tortoises are declining worldwide and currently represent one of the most imperiled major vertebrate groups. Identifying the conditions that promote long-term viable populations is a critical conservation need. However, for most species, there is relatively little or no empirical information about the factors influencing population demographics. Large-scale population monitoring efforts necessary to acquire such information remain rare due to the logistic challenges associated with low and variable detectability, which generally preclude large monitoring initiatives by any single entity. The development of collaborative population monitoring programs represents one potential strategy for overcoming these challenges. Our goal was to leverage partnerships to identify the potential factors and relevant scales affecting wood turtle (Glyptemys insculpta) population demographics. Through a large-scale collaborative multi institutional monitoring effort, we conducted 983 spring stream surveys at 293 sites across the northeastern United States. Wood turtle abundance was negatively associated with agriculture (300 m and 5500 m) and road traffic (5500 m) and positively associated with mature forest (5500 m). Juvenile proportion displayed strong negative relationships with stream gradient and imperviousness (300 m). Sex ratios were more male-skewed with higher mature forest cover (90 m) and road density (5500 m) and less undeveloped land (300 m). These findings suggest that effective conservation of demographically robust turtle populations will require consideration of multiple spatial scales. Landscape-level conservation may be particularly important for ensuring long-term viable populations. This study highlights the valuable role that collaboration across institutions and jurisdictions can play in the conservation of cryptic taxa.

Mechanisms influencing body size in freshwater turtles are complex, but important because body size influences reproductive output, survivorship, and behavior. Two proximate drivers of body size in freshwater turtles are temperature-related factors and density-dependent factors. Large museum collections from the 19th Century provide a basis by which to evaluate environmental drivers of body size. One of the largest series from the 1800s is a collection of Wood Turtles (Glyptemys insculpta) from Lancaster, Massachusetts, USA, studied by Louis Agassiz. We compared shell dimensions, growth rates, and sexual dimorphism in the Agassiz sample to a sample of living turtles from Lancaster. Adult turtles living today are 20% larger in dimensions than 1850s turtles, and 1850s males are below the modern range of variation. The sexes are more dimorphic today, and modern juveniles grow significantly faster than 1850s counterparts. We used a recent, statewide sample to evaluate whether adult body size has changed significantly as a partial response to a warmer climate, or as a density-dependent response to population decline. Modern Wood Turtle body size across Massachusetts is positively associated with growing degree-days, and adult male body size is negatively correlated with population density. Our results suggest that the 1850s growth rate may have been reduced due to a cooler growing season, and that 1850s adult body size may have been constrained by density-dependent factors. Evidence for Wood Turtle population decline at Lancaster is anecdotal, but noteworthy: Agassiz reported collecting "over one hundred in an afternoon"; we estimated approximately 2.2 turtles per survey in 2009.

Bush dogs (Speothos venaticus) are a small, wide-ranging neotropical pack-hunting canid whose ecology is relatively poorly known. Here, we document new, repeated observations of bush dog groups in east-central (Barbilla National Park) and south-eastern (La Amistad International Park) Costa Rica that suggest either that their recent or historic range has been underestimated, or that their potential range in Central America may have recently expanded and could now include not only borderlands with Panama but perhaps a substantial portion of the Talamanca Mountains up to 120 km to the north-northwest and at elevations up to 2,119 m. In light of their inherently low density, documenting the current and future distribution of bush dogs in Central America will be challenging.

The use of digital VHF telemetry is expanding as a lightweight alternative to satellite-based technologies for tracking bird movements, though few studies have compared how they perform. During 2013, satellite telemetry and digital VHF telemetry were compared for estimating the length of stay and home ranges of American Oystercatchers (Haematopus palliatus) on their breeding grounds in Massachusetts; USA. American Oystercatchers (n = 5) were captured at their nest sites and tagged with a 9.5-g solar-powered satellite transmitter and a 1.0-g digitally coded VHF transmitter, and tracked using the Argos satellite system, an array of eight automated radio telemetry stations, and periodic land-based and aerial telemetry surveys. Estimates of mean minimum length of stay in the study area were slightly longer for satellite telemetry at 118 +/- 12 days vs. digital VHF telemetry at 108 11 days. Size estimates of mean (SE) fixed kernel 95% utilization distributions were similar for satellite telemetry (22.53 +/- 16.87 km(2)) and VHF telemetry (27.27 +/- 21.58 km(2)). Despite a small sample size, digital VHF telemetry, when combined with automated radio telemetry stations and telemetry surveys, performed similarly to satellite telemetry for estimating timing and home range size of shorebirds on their breeding grounds.

Pelagic predators such as albatross have long been of conservation concern, but assessing their status poses numerous challenges. A standard monitoring method for albatross is colony-based nest counts to track numbers of breeders. However, a variable proportion of the population skips breeding in any given year and cannot be quantified by nest counts, creating several complications to efforts in understanding population dynamics. We used stochastic demographic matrix models for black-footed (Phoebastria nigripes) and Laysan (P. immutabilis) albatross to investigate: i) the potential for the skipping behavior of breeders to create apparent density dependence in nest counts, ii) the limitations to assessing population trends from nest counts and implications for evaluating impacts from fisheries bycatch, including calculating Potential Biological Removal values, and iii) the relative importance of at-sea versus on-island threats to population viability. We found the increased likelihood of these albatrosses skipping breeding following a successful season – a feature common to many seabirds and other taxa – results in substantial negative temporal auto-correlation in the observable population that can be misinterpreted as negative density dependence, with important implications for inferences about population viability. Black-footed albatross appear limited by fisheries bycatch, while Laysan albatross, which have low estimated bycatch mortality, are currently at greater risk from island-based threats. Our results suggest a cautionary approach to managing black-footed and Laysan albatross should be adopted because detecting population declines from nest counts could take decades. Ultimately, we highlight the inherent difficulties in assessing population status and trends in long-lived species such as albatross.

Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners evaluated in Black-footed and Laysan Albatross plasma samples that were used to determine the sum of PCBs.

Myanmar is regarded as a last frontier of biodiversity in Asia. We used results from camera-traps set for tigers (Panthera tigris) during 2001-2011 in the Hukaung Valley Wildlife Sanctuary of northern Myanmar to assess overall species richness of large mammals and birds, and to identify differences in species detection rates spatially and temporally. We deployed 403 camera stations during the dry seasons, October-July, of 2001-2011, placing 260 in the Core area (similar to 1,800 km(2)) and 143 in the Extension area (similar to 15,500 km(2)). From 10,750 trap-nights we obtained 2,077 independent photographs of wildlife species and 645 of humans. Wildlife included 35 species of mammals (19 carnivores, four primates, one elephant, six even-toed ungulates, one pangolin, and four rodents) and 16 species of birds. Of these, one is considered Critically Endangered, seven are Endangered, 11 are Vulnerable, and 5 are Near Threatened. Some species that probably occur in the Sanctuary (e.g., arboreal or semi-aquatic mammals) were not recorded, likely because of camera placement or rarity. In total, 48 species of wildlife were recorded in the Core area, while only 33 species were detected in the Extension area. Roughly half of the photographs were of poachers, villagers, and park rangers. The greater diversity of wildlife in the Core area may be partly due to increased patrol efforts, but is most likely due to differences in elevation, slope, density of streams, trails, and roads, and vegetation, all of which influence access to poachers. The decline in detection of tigers in the Core area, and several of their prey species, during this decade-long study suggests a need for increased management of human activities in order to conserve wildlife diversity in the Hukaung Valley Wildlife Sanctuary.

In the 200 years since the Sumatran rhinoceros was first scientifically described (Fisher 1814), the range of the species has contracted from a broad region in Southeast Asia to three areas on the island of Sumatra and one in Kalimantan, Indonesia. Assessing population and spatial distribution of this very rare species is challenging because of their elusiveness and very low population number. Using an occupancy model with spatial dependency, we assessed the fraction of the total landscape occupied by Sumatran rhinos over a 30,345-km2 survey area and the effects of covariates in the areas where they are known to occur. In the Leuser Landscape (surveyed in 2007), the model averaging result of conditional occupancy estimate was ψ(SE[ψ]) = 0.151(0.109) or 2,371.47 km2, and the model averaging result of replicated level detection probability p(SE[p]) = 0.252(0.267); in Way Kambas National Park--2008: ψ(SE[ψ]) = 0.468(0.165) or 634.18 km2, and p(SE[p]) = 0.138(0.571); and in Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park--2010: ψ(SE[ψ]) = 0.322(0.049) or 819.67 km2, and p(SE[p]) = 0.365(0.42). In the Leuser Landscape, rhino occurrence was positively associated with primary dry land forest and rivers, and negatively associated with the presence of a road. In Way Kambas, occurrence was negatively associated with the presence of a road. In Bukit Barisan Selatan, occurrence was negatively associated with presence of primary dryland forest and rivers. Using the probabilities of site occupancy, we developed spatially explicit maps that can be used to outline intensive protection zones for in-situ conservation efforts, and provide a detailed assessment of conserving Sumatran rhinos in the wild. We summarize our core recommendation in four points: consolidate small population, strong protection, determine the percentage of breeding females, and recognize the cost of doing nothing. To reduce the probability of poaching, here we present only the randomized location of site level occupancy in our result while retaining the overall estimation of occupancy for a given area. ψ

Conservation concern for fishers (Pekania [Martes] pennanti) in the Pacific states has highlighted a need to develop cost-effective methods of monitoring reproduction in extant and reintroduced fisher populations. We evaluated the efficacy of nipple size as a predictive index of weaning success for females with known reproductive histories from 3 study areas in California. We captured and radiocollared 91 female fishers on 146 occasions between 2004 and 2011 and measured the width and height of all 4 nipples and quantified reproductive status via radiotelemetry. We classified each radiomarked female into 1 of 3 reproductive classes (nonbreeders, attempted breeders, and current breeders) based on our telemetry observations during the den season prior to capture. We used a modified random forests (RF) procedure to account for repeated measures of individual females sampled in multiple years. Our modified RF procedure correctly classified reproductive class for 130 (89%) and 131 (90%) of our 146 observations using raw and weighted vote totals, respectively. We calculated Cohen's kappa of 0.80 and 0.81 using raw and weighted vote totals, respectively, indicating strong model performance. We conclude that nipple sizes of female fishers measured during a livetrapping effort can be used as a cost-effective index of the weaning rates of adult female fishers.

A severe decline of island foxes (Urocyon littoralis) on the northern Channel Islands in the 1990s prompted the National Park Service to begin a captive breeding program to increase their numbers. Using detailed records of all the fox pairs (N?=?267) that were part of the program on San Miguel, Santa Rosa, and Santa Cruz Islands from its inception in 2000 through 2007, we identified factors influencing the breeding success of pairs in captivity in the interest of formulating strategies that could increase captive productivity. We compiled a database of variables including litter size, reproductive success, distance to nearest occupied pen during the breeding season, subspecies, exposure, female age, male age, age difference, female and male origin (wild vs. captive born), same versus different origin, years paired, previous reproductive success by the pair, previous reproductive success by the female, mate aggression-related injuries, male previous involvement in a pair with mate aggression, and female previous involvement in a pair with mate aggression. We used multiple linear regression to identify factors predictive of litter size, and logistic regression to predict the probability of reproductive success. A larger inter-pen distance, older male age, less exposure, and a smaller intra-pair age difference positively affected litter size. The probabilities of reproductive success increased with fewer years paired and less exposure. Comparatively, pairs with wild born females (vs. captive born females), and previously successful pairs (vs. previously unsuccessful and new pairs) were most likely to be successful. These results indicate that the optimal situation was to pair wild-caught females with older males in sheltered pens that were as far from other pens as possible, to maintain successful pairs and repair unsuccessful ones. Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

We evaluated the nesting ecology of Terrapene carolina carolina (Eastern Box Turtle) near their northern range limit in Massachusetts. We identified 34 nests in 2005 and 2006 at 4 study sites, and measured clutch size, nest success, hatchling size, and habitat characteristics at each site. Mean clutch size was 5.87 eggs, and egg survival was approximately 50% to hatching, excluding depredation. Large-bodied females tended to oviposit larger clutches than small-bodied females, although the correlation was not significant, and a smaller proportion of their eggs produced live hatchlings. Nest depredation varied greatly across sites from 0 to nearly 100%. The variability observed across the species' range and across sites underscores the importance of obtaining local information when developing conservation and management programs for rare turtles. The characteristics of the nest sites observed in our study could be simulated to more effectively create or maintain artificial nest sites for Eastern Box Turtles in the Northeast.

We investigated the relationship between residential development and post-emergent mortality rate in 72 wild Blanding's Turtles (Emydoidea blandingii) at nine separate nesting areas in fragmented and residential landscapes in Massachusetts. Thirteen hatchlings (18%) died during the study, a higher rate than reported by a similar study on a former military base about 10 km away undertaken twelve years previous (0%). Within our study area, we found nests within residential landscapes to have higher mortality rates than nests in nonresidential landscapes. Most observed or inferred mortalities resulted from Eastern Chipmunk (Tamias striatus) attacks. Cars, birds, and domestic horses caused the remaining mortalities. Chipmunks are abundant in eastern Massachusetts, especially in residential environments, and depredation of hatchling turtles by chipmunks and possibly other sciurids may be a locally important consideration when developing conservation and management plans for freshwater turtles in New England. Our study provides additional evidence that residential development may result in sink dynamics for freshwater turtles, in which females are attracted to anthropogenic nesting sites, but hatchlings sustain elevated mortality rates.

The status of many carnivore populations is of growing concern to scientists and conservationists, making the need for data pertaining to carnivore distribution, abundance, and habitat use ever more pressing. Recent developments in "noninvasive" research techniques - those that minimize disturbance to the animal being studied - have resulted in a greatly expanded toolbox for the wildlife practitioner.Presented in a straightforward and readable style, "Noninvasive Survey Methods for Carnivores" is a comprehensive guide for wildlife researchers who seek to conduct carnivore surveys using the most up-to-date scientific approaches. Twenty-five experts from throughout North America discuss strategies for implementing surveys across a broad range of habitats, providing input on survey design, sample collection, DNA and endocrine analyses, and data analysis. Photographs from the field, line drawings, and detailed case studies further illustrate on-the-ground application of the survey methods discussed.Coupled with cutting-edge laboratory and statistical techniques, which are also described in the book, noninvasive survey methods are efficient and effective tools for sampling carnivore populations. "Noninvasive Survey Methods for Carnivores" allows practitioners to carefully evaluate a diversity of detection methods and to develop protocols specific to their survey objectives, study area, and species of interest. It is an essential resource for anyone interested in the study of carnivores, from scientists engaged in primary research to agencies or organizations requiring carnivore detection data to develop management or conservation plans.

Predicting population-level effects from changes in demographic rates of different life stages is critical to prioritize conservation efforts. Demographic modeling and sensitivity analysis in particular, has become a standard tool to evaluate how management actions influence species' survival. Demographic analyses have resulted in the robust generalization that, for long-lived species with delayed reproduction, population growth rates will be most sensitive to changes in survivorship of older-aged individuals. Although useful in guiding management, this simple maxim may limit options for conservation by causing managers to overlook actions that, although possibly not the most effective in terms of increasing a population's growth rate in an ideal world, can nonetheless more feasibly and rapidly slow a population's decline. We examine the population-level benefits of increasing chick survival in a long-lived seabird, the Laysan albatross Phoebastria immutabilis. Specifically, we use a simple deterministic modeling approach to evaluate the impact of chick mortality (from ingestion of lead-based paint) on the population growth rate (lambda) for Laysan albatross that breed on Sand Island, Midway Atoll (part of the Hawaiian Archipelago). We estimate that up to 7% of chicks on Sand Island fail to fledge as a result of lead poisoning, which will create a 16% reduction in the Laysan albatross population size (similar to 190 000 less birds) at 50 years into the future. We demonstrate how straightforward management actions that increase juvenile survivorship (e.g. removal of lead-based paint) can help slow population declines while efforts are underway to reduce politically and logistically challenging threats to adult survivorship (e.g. mortality from international fisheries bycatch). Our work exemplifies a situation where overgeneralizations about demography can stifle useful conservation actions and highlights the need to consider the population-level benefits from multiple management strategies.

Catastrophic events, either from natural (e.g., hurricane) or human-induced (e.g., forest clear-cut) processes, are a well-known threat to wild populations. However, our lack of knowledge about population-level effects of catastrophic events has inhibited the careful examination of how catastrophes affect population growth and persistence. For the critically endangered short-tailed albatross (Phoebastria albatrus), episodic volcanic eruptions are considered a serious catastrophic threat since approximately 80% of the global population of ∼2500 birds (in 2006) currently breeds on an active volcano, Torishima Island. We evaluated how short-tailed albatross population persistence is affected by the catastrophic threat of a volcanic eruption relative to chronic threats. We also provide an example for overcoming the seemingly overwhelming problems created by modelling the population dynamics of a species with limited demographic data by incorporating uncertainty in our analysis. As such, we constructed a stochastic age-based matrix model that incorporated both catastrophic mortality due to volcanic eruptions and chronic mortality from several potential sources (e.g., contaminant exposure, fisheries bycatch) to determine the relative effects of these two types of threats on short-tailed albatross population growth and persistence. Modest increases (1%) in chronic (annual) mortality had a 2.5-fold greater effect on predicted short-tailed albatross stochastic population growth rate (lambda) than did the occurrence of periodic volcanic eruptions that follow historic eruption frequencies (annual probability of eruption 2.2%). Our work demonstrates that periodic catastrophic volcanic eruptions, despite their dramatic nature, are less likely to affect the population viability and recovery of short-tailed albatross than low-level chronic mortality.