The paper deals with the method of similarity for the decision-making process. It was noted that there are two approaches to the systems similarity analysis – structural similarity and descriptive one. Structural similarity, which is based on theorems proven in algebraic systems and universal algebra theories, which are difficult to apply. The authors acknowledged that descriptive similarity is more relevant for assess two sets, which must consist of relevant statements. This study examines the application of descriptive similarity in the process of managing the development of urban transport systems in small towns in Estonia and Ukraine.

An assessment of the similarity of situations and developments in decision-making processes is under consideration. Specifically, mathematical and IT tools that make it possible to assess plausibility and similarity based on the limited amount of information available. Under observation is the assessing the plausibility of occurrence of armed conflict. The data this study is based on is limited periodically and regionally: starting from the end of World War II, until the year 2008. Developments and situations will be treated as algebraic systems.

One type of decision-making processes, which is often applied, based on the similarity of situations and developments. This study examines some approaches to addressing the similarities of situations and developments, including structural similarity and descriptive similarity. Structural similarity and descriptive similarity have been linked in many ways. One of these ways is based on theorems proven in algebraic systems and universal algebra theories. The authors point out that in order to assess two sets of descriptive similarity, it is first necessary to make descriptions of both sets, which must consist of relevant statements. The application of descriptive similarity in the process of managing the development of public transport systems in small towns in Estonia and Ukraine is considered. The authors presented the algorithm of decision-making process’ method. The approach how to apply the descriptive similarity between Estonian small towns and their public transport systems, and the small town of Ostroh from Ukraine is proposed. Some concrete examples and derived preliminary conclusions is presented.

Abstract : The purpose is to study the two facets of corporate social responsibility (CSR) and their similarities and differences between European and Asian countries in different industries. A survey was conducted in Estonian, Chinese, Finnish, Slovakian and Japanese enterprises. Data about two facets of corporate social responsibility, three different branches and five different countries were compared by applying Lorents’s metrics. The ordered pairs were created for each branch and country priorities separately. The distances between priorities were calculated. The total number of respondents was 4187. CSR is influenced by social and cultural environment and industry where the organisation operates. From two facets of CSR the firm respect the interests of agents is more connected with cultural backround than with economic development. The second facet of CSR - firm performance concerning social issue – is more connected with industry than culture. There could also be other factors like ethics, leadership, innovation influencing corporate social responsibility and its similarities and differences in different countries. Keywords : corporate social responsibility, China, Estonia, Finland, Slovakia and Japan

In this article we observe numerical evaluations of situations and developments. Similarities will be elaborated from structural and descriptive aspects. The basis of the structural similarity is homomorphism of algebraic systems. The bases of descriptive similarities are claims in descriptions of situations, which are expressible with formulas of calculations of the predictions. Developments will be addressed by binary precedency and sequential links. Mentioned connections will be observed as sets, elements of which are ordered pairs of situations. The procedure for numeric evaluation of similarities is based on metrics of relative difference of final sets. The numeric rating of similarity will be associated with plausibility: the more similar or close the objects are, the more plausible it is, that the acquired knowledge about one object will be valid for other similar object. The method of numeric evaluation of similarities may have interesting and beneficial implementation options for many areas.

This paper presents a modified version of forward chaining method of reasoning and a prototype implementation called Sylar – System for Logic and Automated reasoning, which can be used for situation management. The method, presented by the authors, implements Modus Ponens and Modus Tollens by Truth tables and a SAT solver to discover hidden knowledge and suggest decisions. Also, it gives the opportunity to use multi-step inferences. Proposed method is suitable for this specific kind of decision making process.

This paper explores the options for calculating the measures of veracity of statements and convincingness of reasoning. This is one approach for handling plausibility and it is important in systems that support or (autonomously) execute decision making for situation management. An unexpected and peculiar non-unity was discovered between the measure of correctness of inference steps and the measure of veracity of the statements used in the implementation of those inference steps, which shows that the convincingness of reasoning may not in itself guarantee veracious results.

Digital circuits have been studied, which can support the decisionmaking process. The circuits allow realizing two types of inference rules: modus ponens and modus tollens. Inference process uses knowledge that comes from a description of situations, and axioms, which comes from the experts.

Situation management requires means for describing various things, both situation states and developments. For this reason we turn to algebraic systems. We define time as a system, as well as systems that are time-dependent. We consider the application of the DST dialogue system as one possible way to reliably represent descriptions in the form of formulas.

We look at mining inference rules from natural language texts. It is possible to use the DST dialogue system to search for logic formulas and inference rules from natural language texts. In order to explain the extent and reliability of this approach, we use the RS-meta-procedure that was created for system mining.

In this paper, we discuss the use of digital circuits in decision support systems. For this, it is first necessary to translate the descriptions of situations and conclusions which are discovered step by step into a suitable Predicate Calculus. Then, a digital implementation for the constructs of Predicate Calculus must be found. So, the main issue is the realization of logically correct inference rules. In this paper, the following inference rules have been studied in a detailed fashion: Contrapository rule, the Modus Ponens and Modus Tollens.

In recent years there have been a number of international conflicts that have been mirrored by a parallel campaign of hostile actions in cyber‑ space. This in turn has prompted various attempts to analyze the phenom‑ enon and explain the threat to the wider public. Unfortunately however the reports and analysis are often confusing and can include rather a rbitrary use of various cyberbuzz words�. It follows that there is a need for a formal rigorous model for describing and analyzing cyber conflicts. Formal methods are also necessary for developing artificial intelligence‑enabled offensive and defensive systems for cyber conflicts. In order to provide a remedy for this issue we propose a formalized frame‑ work of key terms in cyber conflict. We begin by revisiting the concepts of knowledge data and information. Based on that we proceed to defineinfor‑ mation systemandintelligent system�. We provide a formal description for the concept of destroying and falsifying information and explain the concepts of confidentiality integrity and availability as part of our framework. We then propose definitions for cyber weapons cyber incidents cyber attacks cyber espionage cyber conflicts and finally cyberwar. The framework is based on formal logic and allows for theoretical experi‑ mental or empirical research with mathematically provable results. As such it can provide a solid backbone for cyber conflict research which is often based on less rigorous methods.

In recent years the term "cyber" has been used to describe almost anything that has to do with networks and computers, especially in the security field. Another emerging field of study is looking at conflicts in cyberspace, including state-on-state cyber warfare, cyber terrorism, cyber militias etc. Unfortunately, however, there is no consensus on what "cyberspace" is, let alone what are the implications of conflicts in cyberspace. In order to clarify this situation, we offer the following definition: cyberspace is a time-dependent set of interconnected information systems and the human users that interact with these systems. We describe the background of the definition and show why this approach may be preferable over others. Specifically, we revisit the terms coined by Norbert Wiener (the father of cybernetics) and William Gibson. We show that time-dependence is an overlooked aspect of cyber space and make a case for including it in our proposed definition. In addition, we look at the implications that can be drawn from the time-dependence of cyberspace, especially in regard to cyber conflicts, which we define as a confrontation between two or more parties, where at least one party uses cyber attacks against the other(s). Specifically we review the implications on the potential for rapid deployments of offensive and defensive actions in cyberspace, the feasibility of mapping cyberspace, and the need for constant patrolling and reconnaissance.

Emergence of cyber societies places new emphasis on the protection of information and information services. The paper provides a definition for the concept of information that is based on the concept of knowledge and a definition for cyber society, which encompasses the relationship between a society of humans and a network of computers. Estonia and the cyber attacks of spring 2007 are briefly examined as an example of an early cyber society under cyber attack. Finally, the role and principles of the Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence are explained.

A new telephone supporting device for preventing cricks and cramps in the neck caused by holding a phone between the head and shoulder. The inventive device includes a headband having a generally inverted U-shaped configuration. A lower end has an elongated vertically disposed slot formed therethrough. A telephone clamp is adjustably coupled with respect to the headband. The telephone clamp includes a vertical portion having outwardly extending tab portions from opposite ends thereof. A space between the tab portions is dimensioned for receiving a telephone therebetween. One of the tab portions has an adjustment screw extending therethrough for engaging the telephone when positioned therein. The adjustment screw has a gripping pad disposed on a free end thereof. The vertical portion has a screw extending inwardly therefrom for extending through the slot of the lower end of the headband. A nut engages the screw for locking the telephone clamp with respect to the headband.