BACKGROUND:Norovirus is a leading cause of acute gastroenteritis, with a broad diversity of genotypes infecting children. NoroSurv is an established global network for norovirus strain surveillance among medically attended children < 5 years of age. METHODS:Participating laboratories uploaded norovirus sequences from stool specimens collected from 2020 to 2025 to a web portal, which assigned norovirus genotypes and strain data. Norovirus seasons were defined as September 1 to August 31. RESULTS:Participants in 22 countries across 6 continental regions uploaded 4113 norovirus sequences, including 26 genotypes and 53 strains. GII.4 accounted for 53% (2167/4113), followed by GII.3 (12%), GII.17 (11%), GII.6 (7%), and GII.2 (5%). GII.4 Sydney was the most common variant (47%; 1912/4113), but new GII.4 variants/clusters emerged regionally, with GII.4 San Francisco, GII.4 Wichita and GII.4 Allegany more frequently detected than GII.4 Sydney in 2021-2022 in Africa, 2022-2023 in Central and South America and 2023-2024 in Central America. In 2023-2024, a dramatic rise in GII.17 detection was observed in most regions (32% of all 2024-2025 sequences). In North, Central and South America, Europe and Asia Pacific, GII.17 detection increased as GII.4 detection declined in 2024-2025. Other genotypes (GI.3, GII.1, GII.2, GII.3 and GII.6) had regional peaks, accounting for up to 37% of sequences during a specific season. CONCLUSIONS:Our data may help guide norovirus vaccine development and provide a baseline of global norovirus strain distribution for evaluating the effectiveness of future vaccines in children. We continue to monitor the shifting distribution of norovirus genotypes through NoroSurv surveillance.

BACKGROUND:Norovirus causes an estimated 699 million cases of gastroenteritis and 219,000 deaths each year. Historically, novel strains with a genogroup II genotype 4 (GII.4) capsid have emerged every 3-5 years to cause gastroenteritis pandemics. Contrary to historical trends, viruses with aGII.4 Sydney 2012 capsid have extended the timeframe of capsid circulation, well beyond the usual 3-5 years, through genetic recombination to obtain new non-structural regions, for example, a GII.P16 ORF1. OBJECTIVES AND METHODS:The molecular evolution in the GII.4 capsid of strains in New South Wales (NSW), Australia and New Zealand (NZ) before and into the COVID-19 pandemic (2018-20) was investigated by sequencing noroviruses from clinical specimens and wastewater. RESULTS:A continued high prevalence of GII.4 Sydney 2012 [P16] was observed (NSW: 23.0%; NZ: 24.2%), albeit co-dominant with GII.2 [P16] (NSW: 20.2%; NZ: 29.4%). Unlike the historical trends, the GII.4 Sydney 2012 capsid has been in circulation for eight years. Circulating norovirus in the community was disrupted by COVID-19 control measures; lockdowns reduced viral concentration in wastewater by >90% (1.4 × 105 genome copies (gc)/L) from May to September 2020 compared to equivalent timeframes in 2018 (1.6 × 106gc/L) and 2019 (1.9 × 106gc/L). The relaxation of lockdown measures in late-2020 coincided with a strong resurgence of GII.2[P16] prevalence both clinically and in wastewater in NSW and Melbourne, accompanied by a decline in the diversity of circulating noroviruses. Conclusion: In summary, COVID-19 disrupted the strain diversity and levels of norovirus in Australia and New Zealand.

Human norovirus is the leading cause of acute gastroenteritis worldwide, however despite the significance of this pathogen, we have a limited understanding of how noroviruses cause disease, and modulate the innate immune response. Programmed cell death (PCD) is an important part of the innate response to invading pathogens, but little is known about how specific PCD pathways contribute to norovirus replication. Here, we reveal that murine norovirus (MNV) virus-induced PCD in macrophages correlates with the release of infectious virus. We subsequently show, genetically and chemically, that MNV-induced cell death and viral replication occurs independent of the activity of inflammatory mediators. Further analysis revealed that MNV infection promotes the cleavage of apoptotic caspase-3 and PARP. Correspondingly, pan-caspase inhibition, or BAX and BAK deficiency, perturbed viral replication rates and delayed virus release and cell death. These results provide new insights into how MNV harnesses cell death to increase viral burden.

Retroviruses are an ancient viral family that have globally coevolved with vertebrates and impacted their evolution. In Australia, a continent that has been geographically isolated for millions of years, little is known about retroviruses in wildlife, despite the devastating impacts of a retrovirus on endangered koala populations. We therefore sought to identify and characterize Australian retroviruses through reconstruction of endogenous retroviruses from marsupial genomes, in particular the Tasmanian devil due to its high cancer incidence. We screened 19 marsupial genomes and identified over 80,000 endogenous retrovirus fragments which we classified into eight retrovirus clades. The retroviruses were similar to either Betaretrovirus (5/8) or Gammaretrovirus (3/8) retroviruses, but formed distinct phylogenetic clades compared to extant retroviruses. One of the clades (MEBrv 3) lost an envelope but retained retrotranspositional activity, subsequently amplifying throughout all Dasyuridae genomes. Overall, we provide insights into Australian retrovirus evolution and identify a highly active endogenous retrovirus within Dasyuridae genomes.

Norovirus infection is characterised by a rapid onset of disease and the development of debilitating symptoms including projectile vomiting and diffuse diarrhoea. Vaccines and antivirals are sorely lacking and developments in these areas are hampered by the lack of an adequate cell culture system to investigate human norovirus replication and pathogenesis. Herein, we describe how the model norovirus, Mouse norovirus (MNV), produces a viral protein, NS3, with the functional capacity to attenuate host protein translation which invokes the activation of cell death via apoptosis. We show that this function of NS3 is conserved between human and mouse viruses and map the protein domain attributable to this function. Our study highlights a critical viral protein that mediates crucial activities during replication, potentially identifying NS3 as a worthy target for antiviral drug development.

Barramundi aquaculture is at risk of severe disease outbreaks and massive production losses. Here we used bioinformatics to screen 84 farmed barramundi transcriptomes to identify novel viruses that could threaten barramundi aquaculture and to establish a barramundi aquaculture virome. We discovered five novel viruses: latid herpesvirus 1 (LatHV-1) from the Alloherpesviridae family, barramundi parvovirus 1 (BParV1) from the Parvoviridae family, barramundi calicivirus 1 (BCaV1) from the Caliciviridae family, and barramundi associated picorna-like virus 1 and 2 (BPicV1 and BPicV2) from the Picornaviridae family. LatHV-1, BCaV1, and BParV1 are closely related to pathogenic viruses found in other fish species that can cause mass mortality in farms. To aid in future viral surveillance, we also designed and successfully tested an RT-PCR assay for the detection of BCaV1. Overall, we discovered a range of pathogenic viruses in barramundi aquaculture, paving the way for developing effective detection methods to assist early outbreak management.

Several authors have proposed that perceptual information carries labels that identify temporal features, including time of occurrence, ordinal temporal relations, and brief durations. These labels serve to locate and organise perceptual objects, features, and events in time. In some proposals time marking has local, specific functions such as synchronisation of different features in perceptual processing. In other proposals time marking has general significance and is responsible for rendering perceptual experience temporally coherent, just as various forms of spatial information render the visual environment spatially coherent. These proposals, which all concern time marking on the millisecond time scale, are reviewed. It is concluded that time marking is vital to the construction of a multisensory perceptual world in which things are orderly with respect to both space and time, but that much more research is needed to ascertain its functions in perception and its neurophysiological foundations.

ABSTRACT Norovirus infection is characterised by a rapid onset of disease and the development of debilitating symptoms including projectile vomiting and diffuse diarrhoea. Vaccines and antivirals are sorely lacking and developments in these areas are hampered by the lack of an adequate cell culture system to investigate human norovirus replication and pathogenesis. Herein, we describe how the model norovirus, Mouse norovirus (MNV), produces a viral protein, NS3, with the functional capacity to attenuate host protein translation which invokes the activation cell death via apoptosis. We show that this function of NS3 is conserved between human and mouse viruses and map the protein domain attributable to this function. Our study highlights a critical viral protein that mediates crucial activities during replication, potentially identifying NS3 as a worthy target for antiviral drug development.

Agnatha is an ancient superclass of jawless fish that gave rise to all other vertebrates after diverging from chordates ~535 million years ago (mya) (Janvier, 1981). Currently, modern agnathans species include only 43 hagfish and 40 lampreys (Forey, 1995). These two orders have remained relatively morphologically unchanged since diverging 488–443 mya (Xian-Guang et al., 2002). In vertebrates, viruses from birds and mammals are considerably better characterized than amphibian, reptile, and fish viruses (Essbauer & Ahne, 2001). As a subset of fish viruses, agnathan viruses are even more underexplored than teleost viruses. This lack of agnathan virus sampling limits our understanding of the complete fish virome and our ability to monitor emerging fish viruses in the aquaculture industry. Prior to next-generation sequencing and bioinformatics approaches, only one lamprey virus was known: the viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus (VHSV) from the Rhabdoviridae family. Detection of this virus relied on molecular and serology-based methods (Gadd et al., 2010); however, more recent large-scale meta-transcriptomics enabled the discovery of eight new viruses in agnathans from the viral families Astroviridae, Caliciviridae, Hantaviridae, Hepeviridae, and Orthomyxoviridae (Shi et al., 2018), demonstrating the yet unsampled diversity of agnathan viruses. Through screening lesser explored viromes, new diverse viruses can be discovered in fish and higher vertebrates. The aim of this study was to identify and characterize novel viral sequences in agnathan RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) datasets and determine the genetic relationship of these sequences to extant viruses. Raw RNA-seq datasets (n = 150; Table S1) encompassing three hagfish species and nine lamprey species were downloaded from the National Centre of Biotechnology Information (NCBI) Sequence Read Archive (SRA) database using SRA Toolkit v.2.9.6-1 (Leinonen et al., 2011). The reads were assembled de novo with Trinity v.2.8.4 (Haas et al., 2013) and annotated using DIAMOND v.0.9.31 (Buchfink et al., 2015) against the NCBI non-redundant (nr) database v.2.11.0 (E-value = 1e−3). Contigs annotated as viral sequences were filtered to remove duplicates, and multiple hits were merged into one transcript. These consolidated sequences were used as queries in a reciprocal BLASTx search (E-value = 1e−3) against the NCBI nr database to remove non-viral sequences. Out of these results, the top viral hit for each virus-like transcript was compiled. Two custom Python scripts were used throughout the workflow to consolidate hits and filter output (Harding et al., 2021). The nucleotide sequences of the virus-like transcripts that were fragments of a single viral genome were mapped to its closest BLASTx hit. The resulting assembled genome was annotated with reference to related viruses. Phylogenies were inferred following alignment of novel viral sequences with their closest relatives and outgroup viral family sequences. Amino acid alignments were used where possible, with nucleotide alignments undertaken only if multiple stop codons existed within viral open reading frames. All alignments were conducted using MAFFT (v.7.450) (Katoh & Standley, 2013) with default settings and phylogenetic analysis was conducted using RAxML v.8.2.11 (Stamatakis, 2014). Trees were constructed with 500 bootstrap replicates and outgroup rooted (Russo et al., 2018). Out of the 150 agnathan transcriptomes screened, three hagfish and three lamprey transcriptomes contained five novel viral sequences with identity to the Caliciviridae (n = 2), Tobaniviridae (n = 1), Retroviridae (n = 1) and Chuviridae (n = 1) families (Table 1). Two novel caliciviruses, named Singapore brook lamprey calicivirus (SBLCV; Figure 1a) and Normandy brook lamprey calicivirus (NBLCV; Figure 1b) were discovered in two different brook lamprey (Lampetra planeri) datasets from Singapore and France, respectively (Table 1). Caliciviruses are small, non-enveloped viruses with an ~8 kb single-stranded positive sense RNA (+ssRNA) genome, known to cause a range of diseases in vertebrates (Vinjé et al., 2019). The SBLCV sequence represents a full-length calicivirus genome (8547 nt), while the NBLCV sequence (5448 nt) is missing ~3000 nt at the 5' end of the genome and has a 35 nt sequencing gap within the polymerase region (Figure 1b). SBLCV and NBLCV shared 50% identity (over 5448 nt) with each other and were both closely related to Dongbei arctic lamprey calicivirus 1 (DALC1; MG599967) (Shi et al., 2018); SBLCV had 86% identity over 8547 nt to DALC1, while NBLCV had 52% identity over 5448 nt to DALC1. Phylogenetic analyses of the non-structural polypeptide (Figure 1c) and VP1 (Figure 1d) were performed to compare the evolutionary relationship between agnathan caliciviruses and other caliciviruses. SBLCV and NBLCV sequences both clustered closely with DALC1 (Figure 1). According to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV), a new calicivirus genus is defined by >60% amino acid (AA) difference in the VP1 sequence (Vinjé et al., 2019). The SBLCV VP1 sequence differed from DALC1 by 5% (Figure 1a), and therefore, is likely another variant of DALC1, while the NBLCV VP1 sequence differed from DALC1 and SBLCV by 73% (Figure 1b), thus constituting a separate calicivirus genus. The discovery of further lamprey caliciviruses indicates the vast range of similar undiscovered viruses across other fish species. Caliciviruses cause severe disease in fish (Mor et al., 2017; Mikalsen et al., 2014). For instance, fathead minnow calicivirus (FHMCV) and Atlantic salmon calicivirus (ASCV), have been isolated from teleost fish with systemic disease and clinical symptoms such as haemorrhages and lesions at the time of sampling (Mor et al., 2017; Mikalsen et al., 2014). In contrast, the San Miguel sea lion virus (SMSV) types 5 and 7 (Smith et al., 1998) causes asymptomatic systemic infections in opaleye perch, but upon ingestion by mammals severe clinical diseases such as vesicular exanthemas can occur (Smith et al., 1998). Since SBLCV and DALC1 were discovered in RNA-Seq datasets obtained from fish not known to exhibit notable clinical symptoms, their pathogenicity is unclear. However, this does not exclude the pathogenic potential of these viruses to agnathans and other fish. The inshore hagfish bafinivirus (IHBV; Figure 2a) was discovered in the RNA-seq dataset of an inshore hagfish (Eptatretus burgeri) from Japan (Table 1) and shared 53% pairwise identity over 16,804 nt with fathead minnow nidovirus (FHMNV; NC_038295) (Batts et al., 2012). FHMNV belongs to the genus Bafinivirus within the Nidovirales order. Nidoviruses are large enveloped, helical viruses with +ssRNA genomes with a host range encompassing all vertebrates and some arthropods, such as ticks and crustaceans. Bafinivirus genomes are ~27 kb in length and have only thus far been identified in teleosts (De Groot et al., 2011). Phylogenetic analysis of the nidovirus spike (S) sequence (1,879 aa) was performed to compare the evolutionary relationship between IHBV, FHMNV and other nidoviruses (Figure 2b). IHBV clustered with known teleost viruses that infect salmon, bream and minnow, which suggests the existence of an agnathan clade of bafiniviruses related to those in teleosts such as FHMNV, Chinook salmon bafinivirus (CSBV; NC_026812) and white bream virus (WBV; NC_008516) (Figure 2). There is 122 million years of evolutionary distance between the teleosts and agnathans and therefore for some of their viruses too, suggesting a wide diversity of bafiniviruses that remain undiscovered in all fish. Nidovirus infections can cause disease and lead to death in a wide variety of vertebrate hosts and some crustacean species (Wongteerasupaya et al., 1995). FHMNV, the closest relative of IHBV, is known to cause clinical symptoms such as haemorrhaging of the eyes and skin, and even death in baitfish farms in the USA (Batts et al., 2012). CSBV is another bafinivirus also known to cause severe FHMNV-like clinical symptoms in a range of fish species including goldfish (Carassius auratus) and Chinook salmon (Cano et al., 2020). Given the pathogenic potential of related nidoviruses, IHBV could cause severe diseases in agnathans and teleosts; thus, further studies are warranted to fully characterize its pathogenicity. Occasionally, viruses integrate into the host genome and are passed on through subsequent generations, and once fixed in a population, they are termed endogenous viral elements (EVEs) (Holmes, 2011). EVEs that produce transcripts can be differentiated from infecting viruses due to the presence of stop codons in the RNA (Harding et al., 2021). Two EVEs were discovered in the transcriptomes of an inshore hagfish from Japan and a shortheaded lamprey (Mordacia mordax) from Australia. Four chuvirus-like transcripts were found in the inshore hagfish (Figure 3; Table 1), each sharing 50%–64% pairwise identity over 2300–2400 nt with the Guangdong red-banded snake chuvirus-like virus (GRSChuV; MG600009) (Shi et al., 2018). The shortheaded lamprey RNA-seq dataset revealed two non-overlapping sequences (Figure 4; Table 1) that collectively shared 54% pairwise identity over 5837 nt with the retrovirus, Atlantic salmon swim bladder sarcoma virus (SSSV; NC_007654) (Paul et al., 2006). Stop codons comprise ~1%–4% of these six sequences and as a result, are unlikely to be translated into any functional proteins. The detection of these EVEs indicates prior infection with an ancestral related virus. Despite the unclear evolutionary path of Chuviridae, agnathan chuviruses could inform of the evolution of these viruses and the threat they may pose to vertebrate hosts. From this study, it is evident that agnathan viruses are largely unexplored and their threat to both agnathans and teleosts is unknown. Lamprey and hagfish viruses range from simpler viruses such as caliciviruses, to complex viruses such as bafiniviruses. The novel viruses discovered in this study are closely related to highly pathogenic teleost viruses and could be similarly pathogenic in agnathans and possibly other fish. By exploring the range of viruses in agnathans, a more complete virome can be established to enable future viral discovery and to understand the pathogenic challenges that fish face. This research includes computations using the Linux computational cluster Katana supported by the Faculty of Science, UNSW, Australia (Smith and Betbeder-Matibet, 2010). The authors have declared no conflict of interest. All datasets used in this study were publicly available and downloaded from the NCBI SRA database. Datasets used are detailed in the supplementary data. Please note: The publisher is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article.

Amphibians and non-avian reptiles represent a significant proportion of terrestrial vertebrates, however knowledge of their viruses is not proportional to their abundance. Many amphibians and reptiles have strict habitual environments and localised populations and are vulnerable to viral outbreaks and potential elimination as a result. We sought to identify viruses that were hidden in amphibian and reptile metatranscriptomic data by screening 235 RNA-sequencing datasets from a 122 species covering 25 countries. We identified 26 novel viruses and eight previously characterised viruses from fifteen different viral families. Twenty-five viruses had RNA genomes with identity to Arteriviridae , Tobaniviridae, Hantaviridae, Rhabdoviridae, Astroviridae, Arenaviridae, Hepeviridae, Picornaviridae, Orthomyxoviridae, Reoviridae, Flaviviridae and Caliciviridae . In addition to RNA viruses, we also screened datasets for DNA viral transcripts, which are commonly excluded from transcriptomic analysis. We identified ten DNA viruses with identity to Papillomaviridae, Parvoviridae, Circoviridae and Adomaviridae . With the addition of these viruses, we expand the global amphibian and reptile virome and identify new potentially pathogenic viruses that could challenge populations. We speculate that amphibian viruses often have simpler genomes than those in amniotes, as in the case of the Secondpapillomavirinae and Orthomyxoviridae viruses identified in this study. In addition, we find evidence of inter-family recombination in RNA viruses, and we also identify new members of the recombinant Adomaviridae family. Overall, we provide insights into the uncharacterised diversity of amphibian and reptile viruses with the aim of improving population management, treatment and conservation into the future.

Marsupial viruses are understudied compared to their eutherian mammal counterparts, although they may pose severe threats to vulnerable marsupial populations. Genomic viral integrations, termed 'endogenous viral elements' (EVEs), could protect the host from infection. It is widely known past viral infections and EVEs play an active role in antiviral defence in invertebrates and plants. This study aimed to characterise actively transcribed EVEs in Australian marsupial species, because they may play an integral role in cellular defence against viruses. This study screened publicly available RNA sequencing data sets (n = 35) and characterised 200 viral transcripts from thirteen Australian marsupial species. Of the 200 transcripts, 188 originated from either Bornaviridae, Filoviridae, or Parvoviridae EVEs. The other twelve transcripts were from putative active infections from members of the Herpesviridae and Anelloviridae, and Hepadnaviridae. EVE transcripts (n = 188) were mapped to marsupial genomes (where available, n = 5/13) to identify the genomic insertion sites. Of the 188 transcripts, 117 mapped to 39 EVEs within the koala, bare-nosed wombat, tammar wallaby, brushtail possum, and Tasmanian devil genomes. The remaining eight animals had no available genome (transcripts n = 71). Every marsupial has Bornaviridae, Filoviridae, and Parvoviridae EVEs, a trend widely observed in eutherian mammals. Whilst eutherian bornavirus EVEs are predominantly nucleoprotein-derived, marsupial bornavirus EVEs demonstrate a surprising replicase gene bias. We predicted these widely distributed EVEs were conserved within marsupials from ancient germline integrations, as many were over 65 million years old. One bornavirus replicase EVE, present in six marsupial genomes, was estimated to be 160 million years old, predating the American-Australian marsupial split. We considered transcription of these EVEs through small non-coding RNA as an ancient viral defence. Consistent with this, in koala small RNA sequence data sets, we detected Bornaviridae replicase and Filoviridae nucleoprotein produced small RNA. These were enriched in testis tissue, suggesting they could protect marsupials from vertically transmitted viral integrations.

The involvement of the nucleus during flavivirus infection has been observed in only a small number of cases and can be limited to primarily two viral proteins; the structural protein C and the RNA polymerase NS5. Previously we observed that by blocking nuclear transport, WNV strain Kunjin (WNVKUN) replication is severely affected and through mutation of the identified NLS in WNVKUN NS5 protein. In this study, we interrogated the potential nuclear functions of WNVKUN NS5 has on the host transcriptome, by means of RNA sequencing (RNAseq). In a direct comparison between wild type and mutant NS5, it can also be determined that the nuclear translocation of NS5 results in a significant down-regulation of host genes involved in the innate immune response. When compared to published RNAseq data from WNV infection, many of these genes were overlapping indicting the role of NS5 induced transcription during infection.

Genomic viral integrations, termed endogenous viral elements (EVEs), are fragments of viruses in host chromosomes that provide information about viral evolution and could even help protect the host from infection. In the present study we examined EVEs in thirteen different Australian marsupial species to identify trends in their integration, commonality and to investigate their possible cellular function. We found that marsupial EVEs are commonly derived from viruses of the Bornaviridae, Filoviridae and Parvoviridae families, and circulated up to 160 million years ago. We also show the EVEs are actively transcribed into both long and short RNA molecules in marsupials, and propose they are involved in a cellular defence mechanism to protect the germline from viral genomic invasion.

Feline calicivirus (FCV) causes upper respiratory tract disease (URTD) and sporadic outbreaks of virulent systemic disease (FCV-VSD). The basis for the increased pathogenicity of FCV-VSD viruses is incompletely understood, and antivirals for FCV-VSD have yet to be developed. We investigated the clinicoepidemiology and viral features of three FCV-VSD outbreaks in Australia and evaluated the in vitro efficacy of nitazoxanide (NTZ), 2′-C-methylcytidine (2CMC) and NITD-008 against FCV-VSD viruses. Overall mortality among 23 cases of FCV-VSD was 39%. Metagenomic sequencing identified five genetically distinct FCV lineages within the three outbreaks, all seemingly evolving in situ in Australia. Notably, no mutations that clearly distinguished FCV-URTD from FCV-VSD phenotypes were identified. One FCV-URTD strain likely originated from a recombination event. Analysis of seven amino-acid residues from the hypervariable E region of the capsid in the cultured viruses did not support the contention that properties of these residues can reliably differentiate between the two pathotypes. On plaque reduction assays, dose–response inhibition of FCV-VSD was obtained with all antivirals at low micromolar concentrations; NTZ EC50, 0.4–0.6 µM, TI = 21; 2CMC EC50, 2.7–5.3 µM, TI > 18; NITD-008, 0.5 to 0.9 µM, TI > 111. Investigation of these antivirals for the treatment of FCV-VSD is warranted.

Cane toads ( Rhinella marina ) are notoriously successful invaders: from 101 individuals brought to Australia in 1935, poisonous toads now cover an area >1.2 million km 2 with adverse effects on native fauna. Despite extensive research on the role of macroparasites in cane toad invasion, viral research is lagging. We compared viral prevalence and diversity between toads in their native range (French Guiana, n =25) and two introduced ranges: Australia ( n =151) and Hawai’i ( n =10) with a metatranscriptomic and metagenomic approach combined with PCR screening. Australian toads almost exclusively harbor one of seven viruses detected globally. Rhimavirus-A ( Picornaviridae ) exhibited low genetic diversity and likely actively infected 9% of sampled Australian toads extending across ~2,000km of Northern Australia and up to the current invasion front. In native range cane toads, we identified multiple phylogenetically distinct viruses ( Iridoviridae , Picornaviridae , Papillomaviridae , and Nackedna-like virus). None of the same viruses was detected in both ranges, suggesting that Australian cane toads have largely escaped the viral infection experienced by their native range counterparts. The novel native range viruses described here are potential biocontrol agents, as Australian toads likely lack prior immunological exposure to these viruses. Overall, our evidence suggests that there may be differences between viruses infecting cane toads in their native vs. introduced ranges, which lays the groundwork for further studies on how these viruses have influenced the toads’ invasion history.

Flaviviruses such as Zika virus (ZIKV), dengue virus (DENV), and West Nile virus (WNV) are major global pathogens for which safe and effective antiviral therapies are not currently available. To identify antiviral small molecules with well-characterized safety and bioavailability profiles, we screened a library of 2,907 approved drugs and pharmacologically active compounds for inhibitors of ZIKV infection using a high-throughput cell-based immunofluorescence assay. Interestingly, estrogen receptor modulators raloxifene hydrochloride and quinestrol were among 15 compounds that significantly inhibited ZIKV infection in repeat screens.

Noroviruses are genetically diverse RNA viruses associated with acute gastroenteritis in mammalian hosts. Phylogenetically, they can be segregated into different genogroups as well as P (polymerase)-groups and further into genotypes and P-types based on amino acid diversity of the complete VP1 gene and nucleotide diversity of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) region of ORF1, respectively. In recent years, several new noroviruses have been reported that warrant an update of the existing classification scheme. Using previously described 2× standard deviation (sd) criteria to group sequences into separate clusters, we expanded the number of genogroups to 10 (GI-GX) and the number of genotypes to 49 (9 GI, 27 GII, 3 GIII, 2 GIV, 2 GV, 2 GVI and 1 genotype each for GVII, GVIII, GIX [formerly GII.15] and GX). Viruses for which currently only one sequence is available in public databases were classified into tentative new genogroups (GNA1 and GNA2) and genotypes (GII.NA1, GII.NA2 and GIV.NA1) with their definitive assignment awaiting additional related sequences. Based on nucleotide diversity in the RdRp region, noroviruses can be divided into 60 P-types (14 GI, 37 GII, 2 GIII, 1 GIV, 2 GV, 2 GVI, 1 GVII and 1 GX), 2 tentative P-groups and 14 tentative P-types. Future classification and nomenclature updates will be based on complete genome sequences and will be coordinated and disseminated by the international norovirus classification-working group.

Images of moving objects presented on computer screens may be perceived as animate or inanimate. A simple hypothesis, consistent with much research evidence, is that objects are perceived as inanimate if there is a visible external contact from another object immediately prior to the onset of motion, and as animate if that is not the case. Evidence is reported that is not consistent with that hypothesis. Objects (targets) moving on contact from another object (launcher) were perceived as actively resisting the impact of the launcher on them if the targets slowed rapidly. Rapid slowing is consistent with the laws of mechanics for objects moving in an environment that offers friction and air resistance. Despite that, ratings of inanimate motion were lower than ratings of active resistance for objects that slowed rapidly. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that there is a perceptual impression of active (animate) resistance that is evoked by the kinematic pattern of rapid slowing from an initial speed after contact from another object.

The Australasian Virology Society (AVS) aims to promote, support and advocate for the discipline of virology in the Australasian region. The society was incorporated in 2011 after 10 years operating as the Australian Virology Group (AVG) founded in 2001, coinciding with the inaugural biennial scientific meeting. AVS conferences aim to provide a forum for the dissemination of all aspects of virology, foster collaboration, and encourage participation by students and post-doctoral researchers. The tenth Australasian Virology Society (AVS10) scientific meeting was held on 2–5 December 2019 in Queenstown, New Zealand. This report highlights the latest research presented at the meeting, which included cutting-edge virology presented by our international plenary speakers Ana Fernandez-Sesma and Benjamin tenOever, and keynote Richard Kuhn. AVS10 honoured female pioneers in Australian virology, Lorena Brown and Barbara Coulson. We report outcomes from the AVS10 career development session on “Successfully transitioning from post-doc to lab head”, winners of best presentation awards, and the AVS gender equity policy, initiated in 2013. Plans for the 2021 meeting are underway which will celebrate the 20th anniversary of AVS where it all began, in Fraser Island, Queensland, Australia.

INTRODUCTION:The economic cost of osteoarthritis (OA) is high. At least 4.4 million people have hand OA in the UK. Symptomatic thumb base OA affects 20% of people over 55 years, causing more pain, work and functional disability than OA elsewhere in the hand. Most evidence-based guidelines recommend splinting for hand OA. Splints that support or immobilise the thumb base are routinely used despite there being limited evidence on their effectiveness. The potential effects of placebo interventions in OA are acknowledged, but few studies investigate the clinical efficacy of rehabilitation interventions nor the impact of any placebo effects associated with splints. METHODS AND ANALYSIS:Participants aged 30 years and over with symptomatic thumb base OA will be recruited into the trial from secondary care occupational therapy and physiotherapy centres. Following informed consent, participants will complete a baseline questionnaire and then be randomised into one of three treatment arms: a self-management programme, a self-management programme plus a verum thumb splint or a self-management programme plus a placebo thumb splint. The primary outcome is the Australian Canadian Osteoarthritis Hand Index (AUSCAN) hand pain scale. The study endpoint is 8 weeks after baseline. Baseline assessments will be carried out prior to randomisation and outcomes collected at 4, 8 and 12 weeks. Cost-effectiveness analysis will be conducted and individual qualitative interviews conducted with up to 40 participants after 8 weeks to explore perceptions and outcome expectations of verum and placebo splints and exercise. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION:South Central-Oxford C Research Ethics Committee approved this study (16/SC/0188). The findings will be disseminated to health professional conferences, journals and lay publications for patient organisations. The research will contribute to improving the management of thumb base OA and help clinicians and patients make informed decisions about the value of different interventions. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER:ISRCTN54744256.