Chapter 21 Swine Housing Systems, Behavior, and Welfare Peter J. Lammers, Peter J. LammersSearch for more papers by this authorMark S. Honeyman, Mark S. HoneymanSearch for more papers by this authorRachel M. Park, Rachel M. ParkSearch for more papers by this authorMonique D. Pairis-Garcia, Monique D. Pairis-GarciaSearch for more papers by this author Peter J. Lammers, Peter J. LammersSearch for more papers by this authorMark S. Honeyman, Mark S. HoneymanSearch for more papers by this authorRachel M. Park, Rachel M. ParkSearch for more papers by this authorMonique D. Pairis-Garcia, Monique D. Pairis-GarciaSearch for more papers by this author Book Editor(s):Lee I. Chiba, Lee I. Chiba Department of Animal Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, USASearch for more papers by this author First published: 16 November 2022 https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119583998.ch21 AboutPDFPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Summary Swine were domesticated and adapted by early agricultural societies as they grew quickly and gave birth to large, resilient litters. Over the last century, scientific advancements have prioritized improving the efficiency and productivity of domesticated swineherds by changing management practices, housing systems, nutrition, and genetics. This chapter deals with a summary of pig behavior and follows with a focused discussion on how behavior and performance are impacted by housing systems throughout all production phases. Metrics used to evaluate welfare are divided into three broad categories: animal, environment, and resource-based measures. 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Abstract A 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design was used to compare the effect of SID Lys:ME concentration (current vs. reduced), stocking density (1.30 vs. 4.05 m2/pig), and harvest month (August vs. March) on pigs raised in bedded hoop barns in Western Iowa. For each harvest month, 420 pigs produced from the mating of Duroc boars (Choice Genetics; West Des Moines, IA) to Camborough females (PIC; Hendersonville, TN) were sorted into 12 pens. Six pens were inside 3 large-scale (9.1 × 18.3 m) hoop barns and were stocked with 64 pigs/pen (32 barrows and 32 gilts; 1.30 m2/ pig). Six pens were inside 3 small-scale (6.0 × 10.8 m) hoop barns and were stocked with 6 pigs/pen (3 barrows and 3 gilts; 4.05 m2/pig). Within each stocking density, pens were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 diets which were fed in 2 phases. Corn-soybean meal diets were formulated to deliver 2.94 or 2.34 g SID Lys per Mcal ME in phase 1 (72.6–95.0 kg) and 2.34 or 1.76 g SID Lys per Mcal ME in phase 2 (> 95.0 kg). Pigs were individually weighed every 28 days and feed disappearance was recorded. When pigs in a pen averaged 129.3 kg the entire pen of pigs were harvested. A single chop (last-rib location; 2.54 cm thick) was collected from each carcass to assess pork quality. Pigs harvested in the summer grew faster, more efficiently, and with more intramuscular fat than those harvested in winter (P-value ≤ 0.05) but had lower 10th rib pH (P-value < 0.0001). Pigs allotted 4.05 m2/pig grew more efficiently but had reduced last rib pH as compared to pigs stocked at 1.30 m2/pig (P-value < 0.05). Reducing SID Lys:ME did not impact growth performance or carcass characteristics (P-value > 0.10). Lower concentrations of SID Lys:ME may be adequate for pigs housed in bedded hoop barns but further study is warranted.

Whey extract powder (WEP) from Agri Processing Services, LLC (Carmel, IN) was evaluated as a supplement for weaned pigs at the University of Wisconsin-Platteville’s Swine Center (Platteville, WI). The WEP had the following analysis: 10.2% CP, 20.0% crude fat, 11.3% Na, and 17.5% Cl. Eighty-eight pigs (initial BW 6.4 ± 1.5 kg) were blocked by weight and sorted into 8 pens. Each pen consisted of 5 barrows and 6 gilts. Blocked pens were randomly assigned to receive either the control or experimental treatment for the entire trial. Within a treatment group, 4 different diets were sequentially fed in 1-wk phases. For each phase, control diets were formulated to meet digestible Lysine:NE requirements for the average pig on-test. Experimental diets were formulated to be equivalent to the control diet while including progressive increments of WEP. The inclusion rate of WEP for the experimental group began at 2.5% for the first week and progressively increased to 5.0, 7.5, and 10.0% for the second, third, and fourth week, respectively. Pig weight and feed disappearance were recorded weekly. Data were subjected to ANOVA using JMP 13.0.0 (SAS Inst. Inc., Carey, NC). The final model included the fixed effects of weight block and dietary treatment. A pen of pigs was the experimental unit and differences were declared significant at P ≤ 0.05. Treatment means with a pooled SEM are reported on an individual pig basis. There were no performance differences (P ≥ 0.26) resulting from dietary treatment. Over the 4-wk trial, the control group had an ADG, ADFI, and G:F of 192 ± 4 g/d, 664 ± 18 g/d, and 0.29 ± 0.1, respectively. Over the 4-wk trial the treatment group had an ADG, ADFI, and G:F of 189 ± 5 g/d, 638 ± 18 g/d, and 0.30 ± 0.1, respectively. Although not statistically significant, ADFI of pigs fed experimental diets increased at a slower rate compared to pigs fed control diets. Pigs grew at the same rate regardless of dietary treatment, suggesting that the NE value of diets containing WEP might have been higher than estimated. Other factors such as Na and Cl concentration may limit the practical inclusion rate of WEP in pig diets. A study examining the impact of feeding a constant rate of WEP would further clarify the impact of this feedstuff on pig performance.

Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) is a liver-derived hormone which regulates glucose metabolism, energy expenditure, and body weight. FGF21 was originally described as a fasting hormone, but recent work in rodent models and humans suggests that FGF21 is specifically induced by the restriction of dietary protein rather than energy restriction. To determine whether this protein-specific effect also translated to young, growing pigs, the effect of a low-protein diet on the expression of liver Fgf21 mRNA expression was examined. All pigs were housed in the University of Wisconsin-Platteville Swine Center (Platteville, WI) and all procedures were approved by the University of Wisconsin-Platteville Animal Care and Use Committee. Sixteen four-week old crossbred barrows (mean BW 7.0 ± 0.1 kg) were randomly sorted into two pens (n = 8/pen) and assigned to one of two experimental diets, corn-soybean meal based (CON) and corn based (LP). Diets were formulated to be similar in NE, digestible Ca, and digestible P, but different in crude protein concentration (6.6 % LP versus 23.5 % CON as fed basis). Diets were fed ad libitum for 7 d using self-feeders. On day seven, all pigs were euthanized; serum and liver samples were collected and frozen for subsequent analysis. Consistent with a state of protein restriction, blood urea nitrogen concentrations were reduced in pigs fed LP versus CON diets (6.31 ± 1.22 mg/dL versus 13.66 ± 1.22 mg/dL; P < 0.001). Total liver RNA was extracted and Fgf21 mRNA expression was evaluated using real-time PCR. Fgf21 mRNA levels were increased seven-fold in pigs fed LP versus CON diets (7.4 ± 1.0 AU versus 1.0 ± 0.2 AU; P < 0.001). This increase is consistent with previous experiments in rodents and humans, suggesting that FGF21 is a novel signal of dietary protein restriction across multiple species. The current experiment provides a foundation for future studies examining the role of FGF21 as an endocrine regulator during periods of nutrient restriction in swine.

Whey extract powder (WEP) was evaluated as a beef diet supplement through a 6-wk trial performed at the Lancaster Agricultural Research Station (Lancaster, WI). Seventy-two yearling heifers (initial BW 279 ± 26 kg) were stratified by weight and within 12 strata, 1 heifer was assigned to each of 6 pens. After 1 wk of basal diet feeding, pens of heifers were randomly assigned to either continue receiving the basal diet or to receive increasing levels of WEP. In wks 2 through 5, 3 pens received increasing amounts of WEP—1, 3, 6, and 9% of diet DM, respectively. In wk 6, all pens were again fed the basal diet and then weighed. Throughout the trial feed bunks were monitored for feed refusals and daily ration allowance was adjusted to ensure that feed offered matched feed consumed. Individual ingredients and diets were sampled twice weekly and were dried at 50°C to quantify DM. Weekly pen DMI were subjected to ANOVA using JMP 13.0.0 (SAS Inst. Inc., Carey, NC). The model included the fixed effect of WEP inclusion rate. Pen was the experimental unit and significance was declared at P ≤ 0.05. Week 1 DM intake (DMI) of basal diet was not different across pens (P = 0.82). Intake of diet supplemented with 1% WEP was not different (P > 0.68) than DMI of basal diet. However, DMI of diet supplemented with 3, 6 and 9% WEP were less (P < 0.01) than basal diet. There was a trend (P < 0.08) for ADG of heifers fed basal diet (1.26 kg/d) to be greater than ADG of heifers receiving WEP (1.13 kg/d) which is consistent with suppressed DMI when fed more than 1% WEP. Table 1. Daily DMI (kg/hd) of beef heifers fed incremental levels of whey extract powder (WEP)1 1 Supplied by Agri Processing Services LLC (Carmel, IN). 2 35% corn silage, 50% alfalfa haylage, 12% cracked corn, and 3% trace nutrient supplement (DM basis). 3 All ingredient percentages of the basal diet diluted by WEP on a DM basis at the rate of 0, 1, 3, 6, 9, and 0% in week 1 through 6 respectively Table 1. Daily DMI (kg/hd) of beef heifers fed incremental levels of whey extract powder (WEP)1 1 Supplied by Agri Processing Services LLC (Carmel, IN). 2 35% corn silage, 50% alfalfa haylage, 12% cracked corn, and 3% trace nutrient supplement (DM basis). 3 All ingredient percentages of the basal diet diluted by WEP on a DM basis at the rate of 0, 1, 3, 6, 9, and 0% in week 1 through 6 respectively

This study compared growth performance and carcass characteristicsof finishing pigsfed reduced lysine diets in bedded hoop barns. The purpose of this study was to compare growth performance and carcass characteristics of market pigs fed reduced lysine diets in bedded hoop barns with the intended goal of improving intramuscular fat. Pens of finishing pigs housed in hoop barns at the ISU Western Research Farm,Castana,IA,were randomly assigned one of two dietary treatments. The first dietary treatment was a corn-soybean meal based finishing pig diet formulated to meet or exceed recommended standardized ileal digestible (SID) Lysine concentration. The second dietary treatment was also a corn-soybean meal based diet that was formulated to deliver 24% less SID Lysine. Pigs were fed for 80–110 days, with pig weight and feed disappearancebeing measured every 28d.Pigs were scanned using real time ultrasound at the end of the trial. Following harvest, a subset of loins were analyzed for quality attributes. Overall,pigs underfed lysine grew slower and less efficiently. There were no differences in loin quality caused by dietary treatment,although there was a trend for pigs underfed lysine to produce smaller loin muscles. Matching diet formulation with genetic potential is a sound strategy for maximizing lean growth in pigs. Underfeeding lysine to pigs with the genetic potential for high levels of lean-growth didnot result in improved loin quality.

The high concentration of nonstarch polysaccharides in soybean hulls limit the pig's ability to digest this feedstuff and thus decreases its value to pork producers. Current feeding recommendations suggest limiting inclusion of soybean hulls in finishing pig diets to 10%. Exogenous enzymes with protease and carbohydrase activity are commercially available and the addition of these enzymes to pig diets containing soybean hulls may enable utilization of nonstarch polysaccharides. Three feeding trials were performed with the objective to examine the individual and combined effects of feeding soybean hulls and exogenous enzymes to grower-finisher pigs. In each trial, grower pigs (initial body weight 73 ± 3 kg) were allotted to pens of 10 or 12 pigs. Pens of pigs were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 dietary treatments in a 2 × 2 factorial design with 2 levels of soybean hulls (0 or 20%) combined with 2 levels of exogenous carbohydrase and protease enzyme supplementation (0 or 1000 ppm). Pigs were fed ad libitum until 75% exceeded a market weight of 115 kg at which time the trial was complete. Every 14 d, pigs, feed, and feeders were weighed to determine ADG, ADFI, and G:F. Grower pigs (70–90 kg) fed 20% soybean hulls grew 12% slower (P = 0.05) than pigs fed control diets. Grower pigs supplemented with 1000 ppm REAP enzyme diets gained weight 17% faster (P = 0.03) and required 18% less feed per unit of gain as compared to pigs fed diets not containing enzyme (P-value = 0.01). For finishing pigs (90–120 kg), growth rate, average daily feed intake and feed efficiency were not different (P ≥ 0.10) based on diet type or enzyme supplementation. There was no soybean hull × enzyme interaction during the grower or finisher phases. Overall, grower-finisher pigs grew 7% slower (P = 0.01) and were 5% less efficient (P = 0.04) when fed diets containing 20% soybean hulls. Pigs supplemented with enzyme grew 7% faster (P = 0.03) than those that were not given exogenous enzymes but there was no soybean hull × enzyme interaction. Results indicate that 20% soybean hulls can be fed to finisher pigs weighing more than 90 kg without negatively impacting growth or performance.

The objective of the study was to evaluate ground oat screenings as a substitute dietary ingredient for wheat middlings in swine finishing diets. Due to the high fiber content of oat screenings, heavy finishing pigs were used in the trial. Pigs fed diets containing 20% oat screenings grew slower and less efficiently than pigs fed either Basal diets or diets containing 20% wheat middlings (P < 0.01). Average daily feed intake was not different. Backfat depth was not different across treatments, but pigs fed 20% oat screenings had smaller loin muscle areas (P = 0.0016) as measured using digital ultrasound. Overall, if ground oat screenings have a consistent analysis and supply, it may become a valuable feed ingredient for finishing swine diets with proper supplementation. Additional research would help clarify its true feeding value for swine.

The objective of this study was to examine the effects of combining corn DDGS with crude glycerin on growth performance and carcass traits to determine if a high level of crude glycerin supplementation could counteract the impact of corn DDGS on fatty acid profile of pork adipose. The experimental design was a 3 x 2 factorial arrangement of treatments with three levels of corn DDGS (0,150, or 250 g/kg diet) and two levels of crude glycerin (0 or 100 g/kg diet). Pigs were fed one of six experimental diets over a 3-phase feeding,program for 84 d with each diet within phase formulated to be equal in metabolizable energy (ME) and standardized heal digestible lysine (SID Lys). Pigs and feeders were weighed every 14 d to determine average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI) and feed efficiency (G:F). On d-84, pigs were weighed and scanned using real-time ultrasound to obtain fat depth and longissimus dorsi muscle (LM) area. Pigs were then harvested at a commercial abattoir and a sample of adipose was collected from the jowl of each pig. Because there was no interaction between level of corn DDGS and crude glycerin fed, only main effects are presented. Pig performance and carcass characteristics were not affected by dietary treatment (P >= 0.05). Differences in fatty acid composition were present due to dietary treatment. Increasing the level of corn DDGS reduced concentration of both saturated fatty acids (SFA) and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and increased the concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in pork jowl adipose (P<0.01). Pigs fed 100 g crude glycerin/kg diet had higher concentrations of MUFA and lower concentrations of PUFA (P<0.05). Diets containing up to 250 g corn DDGS/kg and 100 g crude glycerin/kg support growth of finishing pigs. However, increasing dietary levels of corn DDGS increased the concentration of unsaturated fatty acids in pork jowl adipose and this was not ameliorated by feeding 100 g/kg crude glycerin. (C) 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

and Implications Farmers raising pigs for niche markets are usually prohibited from using farrowing crates and must provide bedding and greater space per sow than typical commodity production. Because current consumer expectations dictate that pigs be produced year-round, crate-free farrowing options for cold weather are necessary and many niche pork companies will not accept new producers into their program unless they agree to farrow pigs during winter months. Several crate-free farrowing systems for cold weather have been demonstrated in Iowa, however those alternatives generally require a permanent, well-insulated structure and/or tremendous amounts of energy to provide a suitable environment for the newborn pig. Beginning farmers often struggle to include livestock on their farms due to lack of investment capital and long-term leases or other forms of land permanency. A yurt is a circular (7.3 m diameter), insulated tent which might be suitable for farrowing small groups of pigs. Over the course of 2 years, four groups of 4 sows were farrowed in a modified yurt at the Allee Demonstration Farm, Newell Iowa. Ambient temperature within the yurt was consistently 10–15°C warmer than the outside temperature during winter farrowings. Thermal conditions were more variable in the summer and pre-wean mortality was 10% higher during summer farrowings than in winter. Pre-wean mortality rates were larger than typical in the U.S. Pork Industry, but were similar to other crate-free farrowing systems. The yurt is a semi-permanent modular structure that can be modified to farrow small groups of pigs. Wide-spread adoption of commercially manufactured yurts for farrowing pigs in Iowa is unlikely, but the pig management strategies and techniques developed during the course of this project will inform the continued on-farm refinement of crate-free farrowing systems for cold weather.

The main objective of NAABB was to combine science, technology, and engineering expertise from across the nation to break down critical technical barriers to commercialization of algae-based biofuels. The approach was to address technology development across the entire value chain of algal biofuels production, from selection of strains to cultivation, harvesting, extraction, fuel conversion, and agricultural coproduct production. Sustainable practices and financial feasibility assessments ununderscored the approach and drove the technology development.

The study compared growth results for Angus cattle raised under feedlot conditions and under a grassfinishing regimen. Outcomes used to answer this question included growth and carcass characteristics, behavior and animal welfare parameters for weaned cattle that were raised using grain feeding or pasture management systems.

This paper compares energy use for different pig production systems in Iowa, a leader in US swine production. Pig production systems include not only the growth and performance of the pigs, but also the supporting infrastructure of pig production. This supporting infrastructure includes swine housing, facility management, feedstuff provision, swine diets, and manure management. Six different facility type × diet formulation × cropping sequence scenarios were modeled and compared. The baseline system examined produces 15,600 pigs annually using confinement facilities and a corn-soybean cropping sequence. Diet formulations for the baseline system were corn-soybean meal diets that included the synthetic AA l-lysine and exogenous phytase. The baseline system represents the majority of current US pork production in the Upper Midwest, where most US swine are produced. This system was found to require 744.6 MJ per 136-kg market pig. An alternative system that uses bedded hoop barns for grow-finish pigs and gestating sows would require 3% less (720.8 MJ) energy per 136-kg market pig. When swine production systems were assessed, diet type and feed ingredient processing were the major influences on energy use, accounting for 61 and 79% of total energy in conventional and hoop barn-based systems, respectively. Improving feed efficiency and better matching the diet formulation with the thermal environment and genetic potential are thus key aspects of reducing energy use by pig production, particularly in a hoop barn-based system. The most energy-intensive aspect of provisioning pig feed is the production of synthetic N for crop production; thus, effectively recycling manure nutrients to cropland is another important avenue for future research. Almost 25% of energy use by a conventional farrow-to-finish pig production system is attributable to operation of the swine buildings. Developing strategies to minimize energy use for heating and ventilation of swine buildings while maintaining pig comfort and performance is a third critical area for future research. The hoop barn-based alternative uses 64% less energy to operate buildings but requires bedding and 2.4% more feed. Current Iowa pig production systems use energy differently but result in similar total energy use. Compared with 1975, current farrow-to-finish systems in Iowa require 80% less energy to produce live market pigs.