The bushmeat trade in West Africa is a major societal issue with contrasting implications on biodiversity, health, and economy. We assessed trade dynamics in Cote d'Ivoire as a response to governmental measures against the COVID-19 pandemic. Changepoint analysis over a 60-week period showed that the COVID-19 lockdown established in March 2020 quickly drove all bush-meat sites to a null number of vendors. However, growth curve analysis revealed significant recovery trend differences during the period of governmental measures, with the largest bush-meat market of Abidjan only showing signs of resumption after the sanitary measures were totally lifted. COVID-19 had a mid-to-long-term impact on bushmeat trade dynamics, as 11 months after the end of governmental measures a first survey showed that three of the bushmeat sites exhibited lower numbers of vendors (c. 56-91 %) than before the pandemic. A second survey conducted 22-24 months later showed a drastic decline in the number of vendors in two bushmeat sites, one of them as a consequence of professional reorientations. Forecasting model predictions through Random Forest algorithms were not optimal for sites that had high heterogeneity in recovery, notably for Toumodi restaurants that resumed trading earlier than the bushmeat markets. Our study showed that governmental measures against the COVID-19 pandemic can have a lasting impact on the bushmeat trade dynamics, which remains difficult to predict because of its inherently complex determinism. We conclude that neglecting the socio-geographical specificities of bushmeat sites may lead to erroneous prediction and management of trade dynamics under conservation-or sanitary-oriented mitigation policies.

Pangolins have become emblematic of the global wildlife trade crisis due to intense trafficking for consumption and traditional medicine. Coupled with habitat loss, the illicit trade in pangolins has severely threatened wild populations. Genetic identification of distinct pangolin populations is an imperative step toward guiding effective and informed conservation management. These populations can serve as a reference for assigning seized individuals to their geographic origins, and thus tracing trafficking networks. However, pangolin population genetics studies have been hindered by limited sampling of geo-referenced individuals, largely due to the species' elusive nature. To address this, we developed a tailored gene-capture approach targeting 671 loci totaling 627 kb with high evolutionary and adaptive value across all eight pangolin species. We optimized the approach for low-quality DNA, including samples from museum collections and wildlife trade, such as bushmeat and scale seizures. We reassessed range-wide population delineations for the three most traded species, the white-bellied (Phataginus tricuspis), Sunda (Manis javanica), and Chinese (M. pentadactyla) pangolins, highlighting the need for biogeographically consistent lineage nomenclature and spatially aware analyses to support coherent conservation planning. The unprecedented geo-referenced DNA database for the three species yielded snapshot insights into pangolin trafficking hotspots and trade dynamics of both domestic markets and global trade seizures, the former providing novel insights into bushmeat trade. Domestic trade reflects local and occasional cross-border sourcing, averaging 454 km across the three species, while international trafficking seizures in mostly scales point to broader, regional procurement. However, common sourcing regions between the two trade market types indicate their interconnectivity, suggesting that local trade may contribute to international trade supply. Our study identified significant international trade hotspots for the white-bellied, Sunda, and Chinese pangolins, centered around southwestern Cameroon, southwestern Borneo Island, and Myanmar, respectively. Addressing geo-referenced sampling gaps and increasing local-to-global seizure data over time may offer deeper spatiotemporal insights into pangolin trade dynamics. Our study design may serve as a replicable model for enabling authorities and practitioners to implement intelligence-driven, geographically targeted interventions, by identifying the key regions most implicated in pangolin trafficking.

This comprehensive species-specific chapter covers all aspects of the mammalian biology, including paleontology, physiology, genetics, reproduction and development, ecology, habitat, diet, mortality, and behavior. The economic significance and management of mammals and future challenges for research and conservation are addressed as well. The chapter includes a distribution map, a photograph of the animal, and a list of key literature.

The giant forest hog (GFH; Hylochoerus meinertzhageni), the largest and most elusive wild pig, is found in a disjunct range across tropical Africa, from Guinea to the Ethiopian highlands. The GFH has three morphologically defined subspecies. Here, we present the first whole-genome data for nine samples from Guinea and Uganda, its two most geographically distant subspecies. We identify the GFH as sister to warthogs among African suids, diverging around 4.6 Mya, with the two GFH populations splitting between 1.7 and 0.5 Mya and following distinct demographic trajectories. The deep evolutionary split is confirmed by species-level genetic differentiation and the lowest heterozygosity level in the Guinean population compared with all the African suids, likely reflecting long-term low effective population size and isolation. Our findings have implications for understanding the habitat-change consequences in African rainforests and reveal a deep evolutionary divergence within the GFH with potential conservation relevance.

Wildlife exploitation constitutes an important socio-economical and nutritional resource to many communities worldwide. Yet, wildlife exploitation -whether legal or illegal- may be conducted at an unsustainable rate, notably with the globalization of the socio-economical context in the tropics. Our systematic review provides an update on the approaches employed to evaluate wildlife exploitation sustainability in fisheries, recreational hunting and bushmeat harvesting, while critically assessing their relevance to the ongoing bushmeat crisis in Africa. From an initial pool of 2803 documents retrieved from Web of Science using Boolean search, 125 peerreviewed articles covering 66 countries across five continents were selected for analysis. A total of 15 index- and model-based approaches were used to study wildlife exploitation, with fisheries being the most investigated, driving the overall predominance of model-based approaches. GLM analysis showed that wildlife exploitation assessment outcomes were significantly influenced by species' reproductive strategy (positive effect for r-strategists) and type of exploitation (negative effect for fisheries). Bushmeat exploitation has been studied -mostly in South America- through a mixture of index- and model-based approaches, with a series of important methodological limitations related to species-specific traits, spatio-temporal dynamics of hunting areas, model parameter assessment and hunting offtake calculations. In tropical Africa, research has primarily focused on two genera of mammals (duikers and guenons), not reflecting the wide spectrum of species targeted. We conclude that a multifaceted approach integrating societal involvement, long-term monitoring for data collection, and the full adoption of advanced wildlife survey technologies is needed, in conjunction with long-term policies prioritizing the bushmeat issue.

Unsustainable bushmeat hunting is a major driver of wildlife decline in tropical protected areas. We investigated the spatiotemporal dynamics and motivations of illegal hunting around the Lama Classified Forest (LCF), a key remnant of Dahomey Gap biodiversity in southern Benin, West Africa. Using a mixed-methods approach, we conducted semi-structured interviews with 30 active hunters from seven villages and mapped hunting trails within the strictly protected core zone (Noyau Central), complemented by indirect signs and camera trap detections. Hunting activity was concentrated in two landscapes. Croplands surrounding the LCF were primarily used for opportunistic hunting of small diurnal species for household consumption (e.g., rodents, hare, birds), whereas the Noyau Central was targeted for medium-sized nocturnal mammals with higher market value (e.g., antelopes, red river hog). Kernel density analyses identified major hunting hotspots south of Koto village, where multiple access points facilitated forest penetration. Generalized linear models showed that land-cover type, species richness, distance to hunting sites, and hunter availability significantly influenced hunting frequency. Hunting success and revenue peaked during the dry season, facilitated by trail accessibility and reduced agricultural labor. Intergenerational transmission of knowledge and tools sustained hunting, with artisanal firearms and metal traps predominating. Economic motivations dominated, with ~75% of bushmeat sold, supporting household expenses and agricultural inputs, while subsistence needs remained important. Hunting around the LCF is a persistent, socially embedded livelihood that undermines forest resilience. Effective management should strengthen surveillance in the Noyau Central, regulate peripheral hunting, and promote alternative livelihoods to reduce dependence on bushmeat.

The repeated failure of morphological phylogenetics to recover topologies congruent with molecular data in the interordinal diversification of placental mammals has become an iconic example of the challenges inherent in deep-time evolutionary reconstruction. This situation impedes the reliable placement of extinct taxa and stems, in part, from the underutilization of potentially informative morphological features. Diploic veins are a key example of such neglected structures, in that their diversity remains largely unexplored. Using microcomputed tomography scans and histology, this study investigates the phylogenetic signal of the diploic venous system across a broad spectrum of extant and extinct placental species. Our analysis reveals an exceptionally dense network of diploic venous channels in pangolins, contrasting sharply with the sparse development observed in most other placentals. Notably, a pattern similar to pangolins, albeit less pronounced, is present in many carnivorans and their extinct relatives. These discoveries could establish diploic veins as a powerful phylogenetic marker, unveiling a distinctive signature for Pholidota and suggesting a previously elusive synapomorphy for the Ferae clade. Comparisons with human cases of sinus hypoplasia further suggest that diploic veins play a major role in pangolin cerebral drainage and highlight a likely compensating mechanism involving these vessels and the superior sagittal sinus.

BACKGROUND:The bushmeat trade in tropical Africa represents a major route for zoonotic disease emergence. Yet, the extent to which health risks have been quantitatively assessed remains unclear. Therefore, our study aimed at systematically reviewing health risk assessments conducted in the African bushmeat trade, and identifying methodological patterns and research gaps. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS:Following PRISMA guidelines, we searched Web of Science and Google Scholar (to November 2024) using multilingual Boolean queries. Eligible studies included any research assessing health, zoonotic, or food-borne risks in bushmeat supply chains across Africa. Two co-authors independently cross-validated c. 23% of extracted data. Descriptive statistics and generalized linear models were used to explore publication patterns and predictors of research output. From 449 records finally identified, 129 met inclusion criteria. Ethnobiological and public health surveillance approaches dominated (41.1% each), while epidemiological studies were scarce. Most publications appeared after 2017, mainly from Cameroon, Nigeria, and the Democratic Republic of Congo, with epidemic occurrence significantly predicting national research output. Interviews were the most frequent method (44.8%), while pathogen detection occurred in 40.3% of studies, identifying 66 confirmed human pathogens (23 viruses, 19 bacteria, 24 parasites). More than 88% of studies did not report survey effort, and none implemented a formal quantitative health risk assessment. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE:Quantitative health risk assessment in the African bushmeat trade remains unattainable due to scarce data on pathogen prevalence, exposure, and host-pathogen interactions. Only formal recognition and state-regulated management of the trade-incorporating molecular surveillance, host-pathogen ecological data, and supply-chain mapping within a One Health framework-will enable reliable risk quantification.

Diet plays a pivotal role in the biology of apex predators, shaping their ecological niche, population dynamics, distribution, and adaptability to global changes. The African wolf (Canis lupaster), a large canid endemic to Africa, was recently delineated as a distinct species, taxonomically phagocytizing what was formerly considered the African golden jackal. In this study, we characterised for the first time through DNA metabarcoding the omnivorous diet of the African wolf based on faecal samples collected in northern Algeria. Our results highlighted PCR false negatives in COI (arthropods), while 12S (vertebrates) and trnl (plants) were, respectively, prone to host DNA over-representation and lower taxonomic resolution. Despite these limitations, DNA metabarcoding detected a broader range of consumed items than the morphological analysis applied to the faecal samples, and revealed two vertebrate species, one order of arthropods, and 11 plant families not previously described as part of the African wolf’s diet. The African wolf exhibited an overall reliance on vertebrates and plants with both wild and domestic origins, suggesting yet unobserved cooperative hunting of large prey (wild boar) and regular feeding on livestock carcasses in anthropized areas. Our results indicate that the species employs an opportunistic foraging strategy, with a seasonal shift driven by the abundant consumption of a cultivated fruit (Ficus carica) in summer. Because reliance on farming activities might exacerbate conflicts with humans, there is a need for better knowledge on the foraging strategies of the African wolf, to which further improved, multigene DNA metabarcoding can contribute.

Pangolins are the most heavily trafficked mammals in the world, largely because of the high demand for their keratinous scales from the traditional Chinese medicine market. While seizures of pangolin material are largely composed of isolated scales, efficient approaches to reach species-level identification are missing. This mostly originates from the lack of comparative studies on the shape of pangolin scales, resulting in knowledge gaps on the imbricated effects of serial, ontogenetic, and evolutionary variations. Using a large sample of micro-CT scan data, we performed the first quantitative 3D analysis of scale shape variation among the eight species of extant pangolins. Our geometric morphometric approach suggests that pangolins grossly share similar trends of serial variation, with scale shape and size being similarly distinct across the different body regions. Relative elongation is by far the main component of scale shape variation at the intraspecific level, although degree of asymmetry and shape of scale bed area also allow distinction among different body areas, especially in adults. At the evolutionary level, Phataginus is the most distinctive genus, with P. tricuspis having the most elongated scales overall. Scales of the back (dorsum) appear to be the best discriminator between species, providing one of the few scale shape differences recorded between the genera Smutsia and Manis . Our results provide an unprecedented, upstream understanding of broad differentiation patterns across the scaled body of pangolins. Together with other yet-to-be-explored morphological traits (e.g., scale size, ornamentation, and thickness), scale shape could provide a valuable matrix of information for forensic applications.

The bushmeat trade in Africa is a largely unregulated activity that drives the unsustainable exploitation of wild terrestrial vertebrates—an issue often coined the bushmeat crisis. We build on a four-gene mitochondrial DNA-typing approach to develop an unprecedented reference database framework for effectively tracing the bushmeat trade in tropical Africa. Our dataset comprises over 2,500 samples collected over a 13-yr period across 10 African countries and two European airports. Relying on an expert analytical pipeline and ∼8,700 nucleotide sequences, we identified 96% of samples to the species-level. In contrast, we estimated that conventional two-gene approaches would have yielded 18–26% erroneous or inconclusive taxonomic assignments. DNA-typing refined > 50% of field identifications, with refinement reaching 92-95% for highly processed carcasses seized in Europe. Leveraging expanded taxonomic representation, we empirically refined the genetic species thresholds applied to bushmeat and provide a reproducible pipeline for using our expert reference database from NCBI. Overall, we identified 133 species—mostly mammals—with one-third listed as of conservation concern, and uncovered cryptic diversity evidence within several taxa. Our results also demonstrated the value of community ecology indexes for large-scale monitoring of the bushmeat trade. While national markets generally mirrored regional biodiversity patterns across tropical Africa, Benin emerged as a notable outlier and a key wildlife trade hotspot. We advocate for the integration of community ecology frameworks into surveillance efforts to guide more effective, regionally tailored mitigation strategies. Continued, standardized sampling is essential to broaden taxonomic coverage and enhance detection of cryptic biodiversity in genetic bushmeat monitoring. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.

Pangolins are widely regarded as the world's most trafficked mammals, with their populations plummeting due to intense poaching to supplement the illegal trade in their scales, meat, and other derivatives. A persistent limitation in accurate trade tracing and successful criminal prosecution is the poor quality of seized specimens available for analysis, requiring the development of sensitive detection methodologies. Here, we developed a specific mtDNA-based digital PCR (dPCR) assay for the highly trafficked African white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) and applied it to a wide range of sample types. DNA extract concentration and quality, as assessed via fluorometry and 260/230-260/280 nm absorbance ratios, were highly heterogeneous among sample types due to differences in their inherent biological characteristics. To maximise the sensitivity of the dPCR assay, we used a ten-fold dilution series, resulting in an optimal dilution factor of 1/1000 applicable to any sample type. Due to cross-reactivity in the sister-species samples (P. tetradactyla), we developed a two-fold strategy to define assay detection limits based on the proportion of positive partitions (PPP). This resulted in a conservative threshold (PPP > 0.00012, approximately 0.16 copies/µL) for Phataginus DNA detection, appropriate for general trade investigations, and a species-specific threshold (PPP > 0.004, approximately 4.7 copies/µL) for the specific detection of P. tricuspis. Our success rate in identifying analysed P. tricuspis samples based on these thresholds was 80-70%, respectively. Negative dPCR outputs were significantly associated with lower DNA concentrations and poor-quality samples deviating from ideal absorbance ratio ranges, hence we recommend assessment of DNA quality indicators prior to dPCR testing to ensure optimal resource allocation. Levels of target DNA were variable among sample types. The positive correlation between DNA concentration and PPP indicated high levels of host-specific DNA in (i) rectal swabs, which were overall the best quality sample assessed, and (ii) bone and scale samples, which are the main materials available for trade scenarios. We present, to our knowledge, the first dPCR assay developed for pangolins, thus adding to the forensic toolkit available to curb their illegal trade. Despite our precautionary dPCR threshold estimation, we recommend that future studies reevaluate detection limits using available sample types and dilution series testing, while in the near future a multiplexing assay for all species seems reachable.

The processes involved in acquiring, trading, preparing, and consuming wild meat pose significant risks for the emergence of zoonotic infectious diseases. Several major viral outbreaks have been directly linked to the wild meat supply chain, yet our knowledge of the virome of many mammals involved in this chain remains limited and disproportionately focused on certain mammalian taxa and pathogens. Here, we present the findings of a metagenomic viral screening of 101 mammalian specimens belonging to 28 wild African species and one domesticated species, all traded for their meat. The study focuses on tissue and swab samples collected in various regions in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and in Brussels, Belgium. A total of sixteen virus strains were detected, belonging to the families Arteriviridae, Retroviridae and Sedoreoviridae (primates), Picobirnaviridae (primates and rodents), Picornaviridae (rodents), Hepadnaviridae (hyrax), Orthoherpesviridae (artiodactylid and carnivore) and Spinareoviridae (carnivore). Several strains were detected in mammalian hosts for the first time, expanding their host range and genetic diversity. Of note is the presence of viruses genetically related to recognised zoonotic pathogens, i.e., human picobirnavirus (Orthopicobirnavirus hominis) (primates and rodents), simian foamy viruses (Simiispumavirus) (primates), and rotavirus A (Rotavirus alphagastroenteritidis) (primates). The presence of these viruses in primates is concerning as non-human primates are phylogenetically closely related to humans, which can facilitate interspecies viral transmission. These findings underscore the high diversity of mammalian viruses and the potential risk of human infection through cross-species transmission during close interactions with wildlife in the wild meat supply chain.

In West and central Africa, the bushmeat trade is a major societal issue with contrasting implications on biodiversity, health and economy. With the advent of the COVID-19 pandemic, bushmeat trade markets were hit by national bans of various amplitude and poorly apprehended socio-economic consequences. We studied perceptions on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and related governmental measures on the bushmeat trade dynamics through questionnaires addressed to 377 vendors across three West and central African countries. We showed that bushmeat vendors constitute a professional category engaged in profitable, long-term careers. Vendors generally agreed that the pandemic had a negative impact on their activities and the number of clients. However, we observed large discrepancies among national trade dynamics. Côte d’Ivoire was hardly hit by the bushmeat ban and perceived governmental measures as rather negative, whereas Cameroon generally did not report a temporary stop of bushmeat activities and engaged in the stockpiling of pangolin meat (the most trafficked wild mammals in the world), and Benin suffered from a weakened supply chain. Because such differences are rooted in the geography and political agenda of each country, predicting the impact of mitigation measures on the global dynamics of bushmeat markets might be an unrealistic task if national specificities are not considered. West and central African vendors generally did not believe that pangolins were involved in the pandemic, for the reason that people have always been eating pangolins and have never been sick. Given that genomic mechanisms can quickly turn a harmless viral strain into an emerging infectious disease, we recommend that future awareness campaigns through television and social networks –the main media consulted by vendors– also include education on microbial evolution and host shift.

Abstract The white-bellied pangolin is subject to intense trafficking, feeding both local and international trade networks. In order to assess its population genetics and trace its domestic trade, we genotyped 562 pangolins from local to large bushmeat markets in western central Africa. We show that the two lineages described from the study region (WCA and Gab) were overlapping in ranges, with limited introgression in southern Cameroon. There was a lack of genetic differentiation across WCA and a significant signature of isolation-by-distance possibly due to unsuspected dispersal capacities involving a Wahlund effect. We detected a c. 74.1–82.5% decline in the effective population size of WCA during the Middle Holocene. Private allele frequency tracing approach indicated up to 600 km sourcing distance by large urban markets from Cameroon, including Equatorial Guinea. The 20 species-specific microsatellite loci provided individual-level genotyping resolution and should be considered as valuable resources for future forensic applications. Because admixture was detected between lineages, we recommend a multi-locus approach for tracing the pangolin trade. The Yaoundé market was the main hub of the trade in the region, and thus should receive specific monitoring to mitigate pangolins’ domestic trafficking. Our study also highlighted the weak implementation of CITES regulations at European borders.

Background and Research Aims: The bushmeat trade is one of the main drivers of faunal extinction in tropical Africa. We assess the profitability of the bushmeat trade along the commodity chain in southern Benin and study the perceptions of the actors on the profitability of the trade. Methods: Data were collected through direct interviews. A total of 120 bushmeat trade actors were interviewed in southern Benin. Economic and financial indicators were estimated and compared using descriptive statistics. Factors affecting the actors’ perception of wild animal hunting, trading or supply sustainability were assessed using binary logit. Results and discussion: A total of 15 species were traded along the bushmeat commodity chain in southern Benin. During the dry season, hunters’ gross product is higher because of greater hunting effort, and traders earn more commercial margin. Throughout the chain of actors, bushmeat trade profitability is seen as positively affected by the number of hunters per household and the availability of large preys (hunters), household size (sellers) and monthly income (consumers); whereas negative factors affecting profitability are distance from hunting sites (hunters), supply issues (sellers) and the cost of the meat (consumers). Both hunters and consumers see hunting and trade regulation measures as negatively impacting bushmeat profitability. Conclusion and implications for conservation: The perception of profitability by bushmeat commodity chain actors in southern Benin is conditioned by a set of socio-economic factors that should be considered in national conservation policies and development programs to keep bushmeat hunting profitable and sustainable.