Recognizing the importance of emotion for learning in general, and for VR games in particular, we investigated three emotional design features, including two visual features (background lighting and particle effects) and an interaction feature (available actions). Our findings revealed the affective quality of these three design features, showing that particle effects and actions significantly increase positive emotion, while dark background lighting induces slightly negative emotions. Action, however, also increased the perceived level of cognitive load. Only action had an effect on perceived presence, whereas background lighting and particle effects did not. We discuss the implication of our findings for the design of VR games for learning.

An increasing number of studies has observed that immersive virtual reality (iVR) technology using head-mounted displays (HMDs) can facilitate learning outcomes. However, most studies have been exploratory and were executed in laboratory settings instead of being implemented and orchestrated in authentic teaching settings. Furthermore, iVR design approaches based on learning theories in which learning objectives are in line with relevant curricula are still scarce. Thus, we conducted a study to provide insights from a perspective of instruction in authentic settings. We present the design of an iVR learning application that was aligned with curricula and that includes specific design features to foster relevant learning objectives. Orchestrated with additional learning material and learning activities, the iVR learning application was implemented and evaluated in an authentic teaching setting in the field of electrical engineering at a German vocational school. In order to investigate the effects of a lesson orchestrated around the iVR application, we conducted a study (n = 29) in a pre-post between-subject design in which we compared learning orchestrated around an iVR experience (iVR group n = 14) with learning in a more traditional setting consisting of a typical group task (control group n = 15). Participants were randomly assigned to one of the two groups; in both conditions, the same content was addressed. We compared group differences regarding four dependent variables: motivation, factual knowledge, comprehension and transfer. In both groups, we observed an increase in knowledge and comprehension. The gain in the iVR group was significantly stronger compared to the control group, but we observed no differences in motivation and transfer. We discuss our findings from a perspective of instruction in authentic settings, along with implications for instructional iVR technology design. Despite the high organizational effort still required to embed iVR technology into a classroom setting, we stress that instructional settings that entail complex cognitive and motor tasks can benefit in particular from agency as one of the main affordances provided by iVR technology. More research should be conducted in these settings, and additional research should focus on which design features make these iVR experiences effective, and how it can be assured that transfer of knowledge is also increased.

This study investigates the relationship between vibrotactile feedback and sense of presence in VR. The inquiry focuses on corrective and reenforcing feedback in STEM learning outcomes using a VR environment called Looking Inside Cells. In a randomized within-subject design experiment (N=68) participants got assigned to a vibrotactile and non-vibrotactile condition. Our hypotheses: Participants in the vibrotactile-condition report higher sense of presence ratings compared to the non-haptic condition. Results indicate that vibrotactile feedback increases the sense of presence and impacts metacognition. Participants who received corrective feedback as a vibrotactile stimuli are more likely to underestimate their actual test performance.

Significant resources have been allocated to the development of training programmes designed to enhance executive functions. Recently, digital games have emerged as a promising tool for this purpose. However, the impact of adaptive games, which adjust game difficulty based on the player’s performance, on trained and untrained executive functions (i.e., near and far transfer) remains to be investigated. In the present study, 59 young adults participated in an executive function game designed to improve shifting abilities for a total duration of 120 minutes, distributed over four consecutive days. The differential effects of both an adaptive and a non-adaptive game version on shifting (i.e., near transfer), and updating and inhibition (i.e., far transfer) were examined. The findings indicated that while near and far transfer effects were identified, there were no discernible variations in training outcomes between the two game versions. The present study thus contributes to the expansion of the evidence base in the field of executive function games.

Terrain generation and authoring in Virtual Reality (VR) offers unique benefits, including 360-degree views, improved spatial perception, immersive and intuitive design experience and natural input modalities. Yet even in VR it can be challenging to integrate natural input modalities, preserve artistic controls and lower the effort of landscape prototyping. To tackle these challenges, we present our VR-based terrain generation and authoring system, which utilizes hand tracking and a generative model to allow users to quickly prototype natural landscapes, such as mountains, mesas, canyons and volcanoes. Via positional hand tracking and hand gesture detection, users can use their hands to draw mid-air strokes to indicate desired shapes for the landscapes. A Conditional Generative Adversarial Network trained by using real-world terrains and their height maps then helps to generate a realistic landscape which combines features of training data and the mid-air strokes. In addition, users can use their hands to further manipulate their mid-air strokes to edit the landscapes. In this paper, we explore this design space and present various scenarios of terrain generation. Additionally, we evaluate our system across a diverse user base that varies in VR experience and professional background. The study results indicate that our system is feasible, user-friendly and capable of fast prototyping.

Background Scaffolding pre-service teachers' assessment process in video-based simulations can enhance their acquisition and refinement of assessment skills, for example, needed for accurate judgments of students' mathematical proof skills. Adapting this scaffolding to learners’ individual learning processes, for example, based on text data during the assessment process, brings potential for increased learning gains. Aims In this study, we investigated the effectiveness of adaptive scaffolding based on real-time process data, specifically targeting pre-service mathematics teachers' assessment skills regarding students’ mathematical proof skills in geometry. Sample Participants were 245 pre-service teachers. Methods In a pre- and post-test, participants completed a video-based simulation to measure their assessment skills regarding students’ mathematical proof skills. During the intervention, participants were randomly assigned to complete the video-based simulation (i) without scaffolding, (ii) with non-adaptive scaffolding, or (iii) with adaptive scaffolding. Results We did not find significant benefits of adaptive scaffolding in enhancing pre-service teachers’ judgment accuracy, aligning with prior research. For an in-depth analysis, we developed and applied a scheme to systematically validate design decisions for adaptive support. This scheme focuses on the selection and measurement of the source of adaptation and the employed support mechanisms. Applying this scheme pointed towards effects of adaptive scaffolding during the assessment process. Conclusions This study highlights the need for proximal measures to describe learning in short interventions, explores the intricacies of adaptive scaffolding, such as overlapping with design-loop adaptivity or the accuracy of automated coding, and provides a scheme for an in-depth evaluation of the adaptivity of scaffolding.

We investigated the effectiveness of immersive virtual reality (VR) for science learning by comparing an VR environment with traditional learning. One group learned about cell biology with a headmounted display using interactive simulation modules in VR, the other with a slideshow presenting the same materials. This study focused on the research question: "Does learning in immersive VR designed to take advantage of VR affordances lead to higher learning outcomes and affective outcomes compared to traditional instruction?" In a quasi-experimental between-subject control group design (N=63), we measured students recall, comprehension, interest, motivation, and experienced emotions. Results indicate that the VR group scored significantly higher than the control group on some dimensions of the post assessment. In addition, VR learners reported higher scores of positive affect and interest. The results of this study support the idea that an affordances approach to the design of VR for learning results in increased learning outcomes and that by using such an approach, VR can be a viable tool for science learning.

BACKGROUND:What is redundancy? While most studies confirm that redundancy is harmful to learning, there are two theoretical approaches to redundancy. The first understands redundancy as a contentual overlap that puts demand on the limited cognitive capacities of the learner. The second understands redundancy as an ineffective combination of sources leading to an overload of the limited working memory modalities.AIMS:Since these theoretical differences are rarely acknowledged in operation, this study proposes a classification of two distinct types of redundancy to compare these experimentally to investigate their possible main and interaction effects. The first type, content redundancy, is concerned with the contentual overlap of information. The second type, modal redundancy, is concerned with the modalities in which the information is displayed.METHODS:We used these two types of redundancy as factors in a 2 × 2 within-subject design, in which we experimentally compared their effects.SAMPLE:University students (N = 46) learned from specifically designed domain-general material which aimed to observe redundancy effects without interference from confounding variables.RESULTS:The results show that content redundancy increases learning outcomes and decreases cognitive load, while modal redundancy decreases learning outcomes and increases cognitive load.CONCLUSION:On the theoretical level, these findings confirm the usefulness to distinguish content redundancy from modal redundancy. On the practical level, the empirical findings of the different effects of the two types of redundancy provide educators with important insights that can improve the design of multimedia learning materials.

We investigated the effect of two types of whole task patient simulations, role-play and web-based, on learning outcomes for two topics, local anesthesia and non-surgical extractions, in a foundational oral maxillofacial surgery course for second year pre-clinical dental students. Using a 2x2 factorial design, we asked which simulation model allows for deeper cognitive engagement that fosters higher learning outcomes for novices practicing complex skills as a professional, a collaborative role-play simulation (Role-Play Sim), or an individually-paced web-based simulation (Web Sim)? In two studies covering two different topics, we compared the effect of these simulations on 50-item multiple-choice knowledge tests. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four groups: No Sim, Web Sim, Role-Play Sim, or Both Sims. For study 1 covering local anesthesia, there was a statistically significant main effect for the Role-Play Sim, F (1, 105) = 103.804, p < 0.001,.p eta(2)(p) = 0.497, but not for the Web Sim, F (1, 105) = 1.655, p = 0.201. Similarly, for study 2 covering extractions, there was a statistically significant main effect for the Role-Play Sim, F (1, 108) = 162.362, p < 0.001,eta(2)(p) = 0.601, but not for the Web Sim, F (1, 108) = 0.072, p = 0.798. The interaction term was not statistically significant in either study. Results suggest that role-play simulations achieved a higher level of learning outcomes than the web-based patient simulation.

Can digital game play enhance child wellbeing? Applying a wellbeing framework that identified six dimensions of wellbeing (competence, agency, relatedness, curiosity, optimism, and reduced stress) we conducted a playtesting study (N = 25) to develop wellbeing profiles for six games. These profiles informed an experimental study in which 8- to 12-year-olds (N = 62) either played tablet-based casual games over an 8-week period (play group) or engaged in other activities (control group) in an afterschool program. We administered the Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction Scale (BPNSFS) as pre-test, and the KIDSCREEN-27, a standardized measure of wellbeing, as pre- and post-intervention test. We found that for children with specific psychological needs, the play intervention improved related domains of wellbeing. Results have theoretical and practical implications, including guidance for game designers to add features supporting child wellbeing.

Executive functions' (EF) role in adolescents' advanced theory of mind (aToM) was examined. In Study 1, adolescents (N = 189 in 2017, M-age = 13.1 years, 55.6% female from racially/ethnically diverse schools) completed the Flexibility and Automaticity of Social Cognition task (FASC), and shifting and inhibition measures. Study 2 (N = 289 in 2018 and 2019, M-age = 15.7 years, 59.9% female, 56.4% Hispanic/Latino) replicated Study 1 in older adolescents using automated scoring of FASC flexibility. Flexibility of social cognition varied based on ambiguity and language use; automaticity of social cognition varied by ambiguity. The role of EF was less conclusive; shifting and inhibition predicted some flexibility and automaticity measures. Ambiguity, language, and EF, particularly shifting, influence aToM into adolescence.

In the U.S., black men are at highest risk for requiring kidney transplants but are among those least likely to register for organ donation. Prior outreach used videos culturally targeted for Black communities, yet registration rates remain insufficient to meet demand. Therefore, we assessed whether generic versus videos culturally targeted or personally tailored based on prior organ donation beliefs differentially increase organ donor registration. In a randomized controlled trial, 1,353 participants in Black-owned barbershops viewed generic, targeted, or tailored videos about organ donation. Logistic regression models assessed the relative impact of videos on: 1) immediate organ donor registration, 2) taking brochures, and 3) change in organ donation willingness stage of change from baseline. Randomization yielded approximately equal groups related to demographics and baseline willingness and beliefs. Neither targeted nor tailored videos differentially affected registration compared with the generic video, but participants in targeted and tailored groups were more likely to take brochures. Targeted (OR = 1.74) and tailored (OR = 1.57) videos were associated with incremental increases in organ donation willingness stage of change compared to the generic video. Distributing culturally targeted and individually tailored videos increased organ donor willingness stage of change among Black men in Black-owned barbershops but was insufficient for encouraging registration. Abbreviations: CI – confidence interval; DMV – Department of Motor Vehicles; BOBs – Black-owned barbershops; ODBI – organ donation belief index; ODWS – organ donation willingness stage of change; OR – odds ratio

How do we design effective immersive VR experiences? Looking Inside: Cells is a set of collaborative immersive virtual reality science learning simulations that were designed by applying best practices for learning experience design, taking advantage of the unique affordances of VR for learning. Simulations were designed with input from teachers and students and cover NGSS-aligned middle school science topics in cell biology, including plant cell, animal cell, and prokaryotic cells and their respective organelles, cell specialization, mitosis, and viral mutation. The interaction design of the simulation implements engagements with the learning materials that support deep learning. The collaboration design allows small groups to work on the simulation together. Emotional design was used to induce emotions that are conducive for learning. Classroom integration features are designed to support teachers’ use of the simulations through lesson plans, teacher professional development, a teacher dashboard, photo taking, and a spectator mode. Ongoing user research provides feedback from teachers and students that is used to refine the design with the goal to enhance learning outcomes.

How do we design effective immersive VR experiences? Looking Inside Cells is a set of collaborative immersive virtual reality science learning simulations that were designed by applying best practices for learning experience design, taking advantage of the unique affordances of VR for learning. In this paper we describe design features of immersive learning we implemented, including features related to interaction, collaboration, playfulness, and emotional design. We then describe the front-end, client-server communication, and network framework that facilitated these features. We argue that the design of effective VR learning experience requires establishing a link from learning objectives to affordances of VR and, eventually, to design features that serve specific functions in facilitating learning.

We assessed whether videos with medical footage of organ preservation and transplantation plus sad, unresolved, or uplifting stories differentially affect deceased organ donor registration among clients in Latinx-owned barbershops and beauty salons. In a 2 × 3 randomized controlled trial, participants (N = 1,696, mean age 33 years, 67% female) viewed one of six videos. The control portrayed a mother who received a kidney (uplifting), excluding medical footage. Experimental videos included medical footage and/or showed a mother waiting (unresolved) or sisters mourning their brother's death (sad). Regression models assessed relative impact of medical footage and storylines on: (1) registry enrollment, (2) donation willingness stage of change, and (3) emotions. Randomization yielded approximately equal groups relative to age, sex, education, religion, nativity, baseline organ donation willingness, beliefs, and emotions. Overall, 14.8% of participants registered. Neither medical footage, sad, nor unresolved stories differentially affected registration and changes in organ donation willingness. Sad and unresolved stories increased sadness and decreased positive affect by ~0.1 logits compared with the uplifting story. Educational videos about organ donation which excluded or included medical footage and varying emotional valence of stories induced emotions marginally but did not affect viewers' registration decisions differently. Heterogeneity of responses within video groups might explain the attenuated impact of including medical footage and varying emotional content. In future work, we will report qualitative reasons for participants' registration decisions by analyzing the free text responses from the randomized trial and data from semistructured interviews that were conducted with a subset of participants.

To be optimally effective, digital technologies should be adaptive to specific learners’ needs. Two examples are presented of data-informed approaches to developing digital games that support the development of executive functions (EF) in neurodiverse populations. The first is an experiment with younger and older adolescents that compared two versions of a video game designed to train the EF skill of inhibition. Based on developmental neurocognitive differences, one version focused on the speed of learners’ responses, while the other focused on the accuracy of responses. Results indicated that, as hypothesized, younger adolescents benefited more from the focus on speed, while the older adolescents benefited more from the focus on accuracy. In the second example, ongoing work on adapting an EF game designed to train the EF skill of shifting for high-functioning adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is presented. A detailed analysis of game log data, specifically data on speed and accuracy of responses in the game, revealed that although accuracy was near ceiling, there was greater variability in speed of responses. This suggests that for high-functioning adolescents with ASD, a version of the EF game that focuses on speed of response would be most beneficial. Next steps for the project are discussed, as are broader implications for data-driven approaches to designing adaptive digital tools for learning.

This chapter summarizes research and theory concerned with the effect of learner motivation and emotional states on multimedia learning. It describes trends and issues in the current approaches, identifies relevant theoretical models, and assesses the importance of motivation (including interest, intrinsic-extrinsic motivation, goal orientation, and self-efficacy) and affect (including positive and negative affective states) as mediators and moderators of the effects of multimedia learning on cognitive outcomes. The reviewed empirical findings indicate the strong influence of multimedia learning environments on learner motivation and affect.

Emotional Design is the deliberate use of design elements of learning materials to induce an emotional state in the learner that leads to increased learning outcomes. This emotion induction should not add significantly to the cognitive demands placed on the learner, which is best achieved by using existing design elements rather than adding new elements. In this chapter, we summarize research on the effect of emotion-inducing features of a multimedia lesson on memory, cognition, and learning, provide empirical evidence for the emotional design principle, and discuss design features that have been shown to induce emotion. We will also differentiate emotional design from other emotion induction methods that increase processing demands on the learner by adding seductive details or that take place outside of the learning materials in the form of priming.

Indicators of behavioral engagement derived from log data may provide insight about variation in participants' interactions with and the efficacy of digital cognitive skills training games. We first sought to determine whether distinct groups of adolescents (N = 163; Mean age = 14.1 years, SD = 1.3) could be identified based on variables derived from digital log data collected while participants played a game designed to enhance inhibitory control. We then examined whether these data-driven participant groupings were associated with improvement in inhibitory control. Latent class mixture modeling was conducted both with reaction time and a measure of response accuracy (d') of log data. Results indicated two distinct classes based on reaction time, and four classes based on response accuracy over the course of training. Class membership based on reaction time was associated with differential improvements in performance on a subsequent standardized measure of inhibitory control. The findings point towards the need for formative metrics of progress, as well as the need for more adaptive and user-centered cognitive skills interventions. Our findings suggest that there may be some utility in analyzing log data as an indicator of student engagement, particularly when used in complement with more traditional measures of performance.