Many real-world social dilemmas require interdependent people to repeatedly protect against a large loss that has a low probability of occurring. Examples include protecting against disease outbreak (e.g., COVID-19), terrorism (shared border security), or extreme weather events (from climate change). Decisions on whether to invest in protection may be made period by period (e.g., month by month), or investment may be precommitted in advance for a number of periods. How does precommitment influence cooperation in these situations? A series of four studies (plus one supplemental study) investigates this question, using incentive-compatible, repeated social dilemmas with large-magnitude, low-probability losses. These studies found that in stochastic social dilemmas, binding precommitment increases cooperation, but nonbinding precommitment has little effect, and in deterministic social dilemmas, binding precommitment decreases cooperation. These patterns were driven by changes in responsiveness to probabilities and interactions with counterparts, with implications for how to structure real-world dilemmas to increase cooperative investment in protection.

Compassion-a focal actor's behavioral response intended to alleviate sufferer distress-offers an antidote to the pervasive challenge of workplace distress. Previous research focused on uniformly favorable, self-relevant inferences observers make about organizations that enable compassion. We examine differential, other-relevant inferences observers make about compassionate focal actors, specifically their leadership emergence. Drawing on Expectancy Violation Theory and the Integrated Framework for Leadership Emergence, we argue that observer inferences of compassionate focal actors differ depending on who displays compassion, what type of compassion is displayed, and where it is displayed. We expect observers to make differential leadership emergence (LE) inferences of compassionate focal actors, arguing that compassion represents a positive unexpected behavior only for men, garnering observers' attention and resulting in men's LE via increased perceptions of warmth and competence. Distinguishing between two forms of compassion, we argue that communal compassion replicates this gender effect, whereas agentic compassion offsets it as a positive unexpected behavior for women. We further suggest that work context attenuates gender and compassion type effects, with uniformly positive LE inferences only in feminine work contexts. We largely support our predictions in a multi-wave field study and two experimental vignettes and discuss our contributions to compassion and LE research.

Purpose This paper offers a new vision of responsible service leadership for service organizations nested in economic, societal and environmental contexts across time to foster collective flourishing. Design/methodology/approach Following the call for novel perspectives that recognize service as a game among (vs between) people in service ecosystems, we build on service leadership theory to integrate insights from infinite (vs finite) games and biomimicry practices to propose a holistic model for responsible service leadership. Findings We extend the 3C (competence, character and care) model of service leadership (Shek et al. , 2021) adding context and chronos as essential pillars of responsible service leadership in nested ecosystems. We offer new interpretations and applications of the 3Cs through the lens of context and chronos. Research limitations/implications This paper furthers the emerging conversation about unique leadership approaches for service, linking existing service leadership theories with holistic views of service ecosystems and enabling a shift from decontextualized models of leadership to a more inclusive approach. Practical implications We propose that responsible service leadership can inspire new approaches to leadership development within organizations and in business education (e.g. competencies, settings) and a reconsideration of organizational structures (e.g. culture, selection and incentive design). Social implications The proposed 5C model revisits foundational assumptions of responsibility in service leadership, integrating actors across and within service ecosystems, society at large and the environment in the present and future. Originality/value This paper offers a conceptual framework – the 5Cs model of responsible service leadership – aimed at reimagining service leadership.

Abstract Social dilemmas are interdependent decisions where the outcomes depend upon choices made by every decision maker. Importantly, the incentive structure sets up a dominant strategy of non-cooperation such that everyone ends up worse off than if all had cooperated, but each individual is better off not cooperating regardless of what others do. Thus, social dilemmas are mixed-motive situations that require a choice between short-term individual gain and long-term collective gain. Social dilemma researchers have adopted a variety of approaches to studying cooperation ranging from considering it as a constructed context-dependent choice that is affected by incentives and economic nudges, group affiliation, norms, and social nudges, while others investigate individual differences and personal perceptions of value. This chapter organizes current topical knowledge through the lens of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), where cooperation is the expressed behavior when an intent to cooperate emerges (consciously or sub-consciously) from a positive attitude towards the act of cooperating, from a dominant cooperative norm, or the interaction of attitude and norms, and is supported by the perception that one has the freedom to cooperate (behave cooperatively). The chapter provides a broad review of the field to understand mechanisms that both increase likelihood of cooperative behavior and those that result in cooperative breakdowns, as well as possible solutions to further effective cooperation.

AbstractSocial dilemmas are interdependent decisions where the outcomes depend upon choices made by every decision maker. Importantly, the incentive structure sets up a dominant strategy of non-cooperation such that everyone ends up worse off than if all had cooperated, but each individual is better off not cooperating regardless of what others do. Thus, social dilemmas are mixed-motive situations that require a choice between short-term individual gain and long-term collective gain. Social dilemma researchers have adopted a variety of approaches to studying cooperation ranging from considering it as a constructed context-dependent choice that is affected by incentives and economic nudges, group affiliation, norms, and social nudges, while others investigate individual differences and personal perceptions of value. This chapter organizes current topical knowledge through the lens of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), where cooperation is the expressed behavior when an intent to cooperate emerges (consciously or sub-consciously) from a positive attitude towards the act of cooperating, from a dominant cooperative norm, or the interaction of attitude and norms, and is supported by the perception that one has the freedom to cooperate (behave cooperatively). The chapter provides a broad review of the field to understand mechanisms that both increase likelihood of cooperative behavior and those that result in cooperative breakdowns, as well as possible solutions to further effective cooperation.

The focus of this proposed symposium is to examine the effects of experiencing and expressing emotional ambivalence and compassion at work on important outcomes, and critically, how these effects vary depending on gender. We join four investigations that document new phenomena at the nexus of gender, emotional experience, emotional expression, emotional display rules, leader effectiveness, leader behavior, leadership emergence, and performance outcomes. Skeptical Responses to Male and Female CEOs’ Expressions of Emotional Ambivalence Presenter: Corinne A. Post; Villanova U. Presenter: Naomi Beth Rothman; Lehigh U. Presenter: McKay Price; Lehigh U. Presenter: James Cicon; U. of Central Missouri Feeling One Thing and Feeling Another: Gender Differences in the Experience of Emotional Ambivalence Presenter: Jamie Strassman; U. of Texas at Austin When and Why Emotional Ambivalence is Beneficial (and Harmful) in Women Leaders Presenter: Naomi Beth Rothman; Lehigh U. Presenter: Jeffrey Sanchez-Burks; U. of Michigan Presenter: Jean-Nicolas Reyt; McGill U. The Social Consequences of Compassion: Effects of Gender Differences and Compassion Types on Leaders Presenter: Reut Livne-Tarandach; Manhattan College Presenter: Sophie Pychlau; U. of Oregon Presenter: Angela R. Grotto; Manhattan College Presenter: Poonam Arora; Manhattan College

Climate change has resulted in frequent and intense droughts and floods-experienced respectively as contexts of certain loss and uncertainty-by farmers and agribusinesses. Such extreme water events, along with normal rainfall-experienced as certain gain-pose environmental dilemmas. In three studies across five countries, we examined the impact of outcome uncertainty on choices in environmental dilemmas. Cooperation was lowest in certain loss (droughts) and higher in certain gain (normal rainfall) in Study 1, a qualitative field study in Argentina. These results were experimentally replicated in the U.S. in Study 2. Study 3 empirically examined cooperative choice in India, Japan, Spain, and the U.S., replicating patterns for drought and normal rainfall. When the outcome was uncertain (floods), however, culture appeared to moderate cooperation. Two levels of trust (global and local) were also considered. Local trust was a significant predictor of cooperation. Potential mechanisms, and implications are discussed.

Compassion, the endeavor to alleviate another individual’s distress, is commonly seen as a prosocial behavior with positive consequences. Drawing on social role theory and leadership categorization theory, we propose that compassionate behavior is related to perceptions of competence and warmth, which are subsequently related to leader emergence perceptions. Yet, because compassion is a behavior often associated with women, it may activate gender stereotypes, and thus we propose that gender will moderate the relationship between compassion and leader emergence via perceptions of competence and warmth, with compassionate women less likely to be perceived as leaders. However, men stand to benefit from acting compassionately because defying gender stereotypes is unexpected behavior that invites positive attention. Study 1, a longitudinal study with 38 student teams working together for 8 weeks, demonstrates a mediated moderation effect of gender on the relationship between compassion and leadership via competence, such that men, but not women, gain competence credit for displaying compassion and are thereafter ranked higher on leader emergence. To offset these negative consequences of compassion for women, the authors distinguish between two different types of compassion, agentic and communal. Study 2, a pre-registered vignette study with a diverse sample of 563 working adults, shows that gender effects are attenuated when women engage in agentic compassion, a specific form of compassion that both conforms to and breaks with gender stereotypes.

Free agency connotes the freedom of an individual to choose whether or not they leave their home organization. We explore how options afforded to the free agent are influenced by the rankings and social comparison concerns between the home organization and outside organization. Probing free agency movement in Major League Baseball (MLB), Study 1 shows that free agents are less likely to move between highly ranked teams than between intermediately ranked teams. Studies 2 and 3 experimentally replicate these effects, showing that highly ranked home teams are more willing to retain their free agents with aggressive counter-offers when the outside offers are from other highly ranked teams, whereas intermediately ranked home teams are less willing to do so when outside offers are from other intermediately ranked teams. Study 3 additionally found that social comparison partially mediated the effect. Implications for free agency and the benefits (and sometimes costs) of having an outside offer are discussed.

Though “teams” are supposed to work together for the benefit of the firm, suboptimal outcomes may emerge when individuals within a team are more concerned with their own status and outcomes relative to their “teammates,” behaving as if they are competitors. Using a version of the stag hunt coordination game, we develop hypotheses regarding the role of status and competitiveness on coordination on Pareto optimal solutions. We test these hypotheses using three studies, with manipulations for both role and status. Status is found to play a significant role, resulting in suboptimal outcomes for competitors but not teammates.

RESUMENLa región pampeana de la República Argentina, una de las mayores llanuras del mundo, ha registrado en los últimos 50 años un fuerte ascenso en los niveles freáticos, con el consecuente aumento en la frecuencia de inundaciones. Esta dinámica tiene origen en dos procesos que se desarrollaron en ese período. En primer lugar, la zona presentó una tendencia hacia del aumento en las precipitaciones anuales. En segundo lugar se produjo un fuerte aumento del área dedicada a la agricultura, desplazando zonas con pasturas y pastizales, es decir, hubo un cambio en el uso del suelo. A través de ensayos numéricos con un modelo hidrológico (distribuido en el espacio y continuo en el tiempo, debidamente calibrado y verificado), se muestra en este trabajo que el aumento de las precipitaciones es el fenómeno que explica en mayor medida el incremento observado en los niveles freáticos, pero que la vegetación también juega un rol altamente significativo. Más aún, se pone de manifiesto la no linealidad de la respuesta del sistema hidrológico a los cambios en la precipitación y el uso del suelo, ya que la combinación de ambos efectos produce un resultado bastante inferior a la suma de cada uno de los efectos por separado. Adicionalmente, el modelo indica que existe una relación exponencial entre la profundidad de la napa y las áreas inundadas, estableciéndose una profundidad freática de 2 metros como el valor umbral a partir de la cual las áreas inundadas crecen significativamente.

Farm production often involves family-owned agribusinesses where decisions are made by households or individuals, not corporate managers. As these decisions have important economic, environmental, and social implications, decision-making processes must be understood to foster sustainable agricultural production. Decision experiments, involving lotteries, targeting farmers in the Argentine Pampas were used to estimate prospect theory (PT) parameters. Results suggest that decisions under risk are better represented by prospect theory than by expected utility (EU) theory: Decision makers treat gains and losses differently and use subjective probabilities of outcomes; they are quite loss averse and are more likely to overweigh probabilities of infrequent events, such as large droughts or floods. Statistical testing revealed heterogeneity in the risk tied to land tenure (land owners vs. renters) and agribusiness roles (farmers vs. technical advisors). Perceptions of risk, probability, and outcomes played a large role in the sustainability of production. Due to a strong desire to avoid losses, decision makers have a greater short term focus: Immediate economic outcomes are more salient, and environmental and social investments are framed as costs rather than long-term gains. This research can help design policies, programs, and tools that assist agribusinesses in managing better contradictions across the triple bottom line to ensure greater sustainability.

We argue for the need for a new language for business – one that is capable of changing the current business decision-making frame of wins and losses to a frame of community and social learning. This paper outlines a classroom exercise about Nelson Mandela’s leadership, involving movies, case studies and poetry, and shows how the more holistic approach helps shift student views of the triple bottom line. Since neuroscience literature has shown that poetry can help enhance learning, students carefully study “Invictus,” a poem written by Victorian-era poet Henley and revered by Mandela. As students dig deeper into the case study through classroom discussion, they begin to see Mandela’s leadership through a new frame, and in doing so broaden their own views. This more holistic approach to studying leadership may allow decision makers to adjust both their goals and the focus of their analysis to go beyond monetary outcomes to include socially and environmentally sustainable outcomes.

The Argentine Pampas, one of the largest plains in the world, has experienced during the last 50 years a strong rise in its water table level, with a consequent increase in the frequency of floods. This dynamics is associated with two processes that took place in this zone during this period. First, the annual rainfall has shown a positive trend; and secondly, change over to field crops has expanded throughout the Pampas, displacing grasslands and pastures, so there has been a land use change. Based on numerical simulations with a properly calibrated and verified hydrological model, distributed in space and continuous in time, this paper shows that the increase in rainfall is the prime phenomenon explaining the increase in groundwater levels, but that vegetation has also played a very significant role. Moreover, the non-linear response of this hydrological system to changes in precipitation and land use was put into evidence, as the combination of both effects produces a result that is much less intense than the sum of each of the individual effects. In addition, the model indicates that there is an exponential relationship between water table depth and the flooded areas, identifying a value of 2 meters for the water table depth as a threshold below which the flooded area grows significantly.

The viability of conservation efforts, including protected areas and buffer zones, depends on finding ways to make those strategies more attractive and viable for local populations. This paper presents a pilot study utilizing a rapid rural appraisal of livelihoods in the buffer zone of Tambopata National Reserve in Madre de Dios, Peru, threatened by illegal gold mining and logging. We evaluated three predominant economic activities—artisanal gold mining, Brazil nut harvesting, and fish farming—in terms of potential economic returns. The main research question we ask is whether the latter two potentially sustainable land uses can match or exceed the returns from mining. Contrary to popular belief, we find that enhancing value creation at product origin could make existing forest-friendly livelihoods as or more lucrative than extractive ones. This has implications on local conservation policy encouraging implementable strategies incentivizing sustainable livelihoods in tandem with, and in support of, conservation goals.

In flat environments, groundwater is relatively shallow, tightly associated with surface water and climate, and can have either positive and negative impacts on natural and human systems depending on its depth. A linked modelling and analysis framework that seeks to capture linkages across multiple scales at the climate/water/crop nexus in the Argentine Pampas is presented. This region shows a strong coupling between climate, soil water, and land use due to its extremely flat topography and poorly developed drainage networks. The work describes the components of the framework and, subsequently, presents results from simulations performed with the twin goals of (i) validating the framework as a whole and (ii) demonstrating its usefulness to explore interesting contexts such as unexperienced climate scenarios (wet/dry periods), hypothetical policies (e.g., differential grains export taxes), and adoption of non-structural technologies (e.g., cover crops) to manage water table depth.

In flat plains groundwater affects agricultural production outcomes and risks. Agricultural land use decisions, however, may strongly impact groundwater levels available for production. This paper explores the scope for managing groundwater levels through land use decisions in a sub-basin of the Salado River in the Argentine Pampas, a very flat area that plays a key role in world agricultural production. A spatially distributed hydrological model implemented with MIKE SHE software was used to establish the impacts of different land uses on groundwater dynamics, and to assess the interdependencies among spatially close decision-makers sharing a water table (WT). Additionally, groundwater level changes in response to climate variability were quantified. We found land use has strong effects on WT levels both for oneself (e.g. pastures can lead to significant decreases (up to 4.5 m) in WT levels) and others, in the form of strong interdependencies that exist between farmers sharing a WT where land use decisions of one farmer effect groundwater level of neighbouring farms and vice versa. However, the effectiveness to control groundwater levels through land use decisions is subject to the rather unpredictable effects of rainfall variability. The results presented in this paper provide key insights in relation to physical and social aspects that should be considered for managing groundwater levels through land use decisions, in order to avoid negative and/or maximize positive effects on agricultural production.