Objectives: Indices of copper status, specifically serum copper and ceruloplasmin concentrations and erythrocyte superoxide dismutase activity, and iron status, including serum ferritin, transferrin receptors, hemoglobin and hematocrit, were studied in 27 college-aged females with adequate iron versus low iron stores.Methods: Serum copper and ceruloplasmin concentrations, erythrocyte superoxide dismutase activity, serum ferritin, transferrin receptors, hemoglobin and hematocrit were studied in 15 females with non-anemic iron depletion before and after five weeks of iron supplementation and in 12 healthy iron-adequate females aged 19 to 28 years.Results: Mean hemoglobin, hematocrit and ferritin concentrations of the control group (144 ± 11 g/L, 43 ± 3% and 38 ± 15 μg/L, respectively) were significantly higher than those of the iron depleted group prior to supplementation (134 ± 9 g/L, 39 ± 2% and 11 ± 6 μg/L, respectively). The serum transferrin receptor to serum ferritin ratio was significantly greater for the iron depleted group prior to supplementation (890 ± 753) versus the control group (151 ± 61). Mean serum copper and ceruloplasmin concentrations and erythrocyte superoxide dismutase activity of the iron-adequate control group (20.0 ± 5.7 μmol/L, 463 ± 142 mg/L and 527 ± 124 U/mL, respectively) were significantly higher than those of the iron depleted group (12.4 ± 3.8 μmol/L, 350 ± 108 mg/L and 353 ± 186 U/mL, respectively) prior to supplementation. Following iron supplementation, hematocrit and ferritin concentrations of the iron depleted group significantly increased to 42 ± 3% and 26 ± 8 μg/L, respectively. Mean serum transferrin receptor concentrations and the serum transferrin receptor to ferritin ratios significantly decreased in the iron depleted group following supplementation (6.1 ± 1.6 mg/L to 4.6 ± 1.5 mg/L and 890 ± 753 to 198 ± 114, respectively). Iron supplementation also significantly increased the mean serum copper concentration to 14.2 ± 5.4 μmol/L and, in subjects with serum ferritin concentrations ≤12 μg/L, the mean serum ceruloplasmin concentration.Conclusions: Non-anemic iron depletion characterized by low iron stores is associated with negative impacts on copper status. Iron supplements improved indices of iron status and serum copper and ceruloplasmin concentrations. Whether the diminished serum copper and ceruloplasmin concentrations and superoxide dismutase activity are associated with free radical damage to iron depleted cells requires further investigation.

The purpose of this study was to examine body image satisfaction in female collegiate cyclists. Subjects included 271 competitive cyclists (23±4 yr) who were licensed by the National Collegiate Cycling Association and 100 female controls (24±8 yr) randomly selected from directories of colleges in the United States. A survey containing the Revised Body Cathexis Scale (RBCS), the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26), and a general questionnaire were used to obtain information about body image, eating disorders, and exercise. Cyclists had a significantly lower mean score on the RBCS than controls (52.4 vs 57.5, respectively, p=.003), suggesting that cyclists were more satisfied than controls with the appearance of their body. Cyclists also had a significantly lower mean score than controls on the Mid Torso/Body Composition Subscale (MT) of the RBCS (25.2 vs 27.6, respectively, p=.005). For cyclists, MT score was significantly correlated (p<.05) with amount of weight loss believed necessary for maximal performance (r=.53), EAT-26 score(r=.40), body weight (r=.24), miles trained per week (r= -.14), and miles raced per week (r= -.12). MT score was also related to cyclists' beliefs about the relationship between their weight and exercise performance (F=8.3, p<.001). This study demonstrated that participation in collegiate cycling is associated with greater body image satisfaction in females. Increased body image dissatisfaction was most strongly associated with increased body weight, increased disordered eating, and increased desire to lose weight for performance enhancement.

This study examined the prevalence of eating disorder symptoms in female collegiate cyclists. Subjects included 271 competitive cyclists (mean age±SD=23±4yr) who were licensed by the National Collegiate Cycling Association and 100 female controls (24±8yr) randomly selected from the directories of colleges in the continental United States. A survey containing the 26 question version of the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26) and a general questionnaire were used to provide information about eating disorder symptomatology and prevalence. Overall, there was no significant difference in mean EAT-26 scores between cyclists and controls (8.9±9.3 vs 10.1±10.9, respectively, p>.05). However, responses to EAT-26 questions indicated that cyclists were significantly less likely (p<.05) than controls to avoid eating when hungry, cut food into small pieces, take longer than others to eat meals, avoid foods with a high carbohydrate content, be preoccupied with the desire to be thinner, think about burning calories when exercising, and engage in dieting behavior. Ten percent of the controls and cyclists had been diagnosed previously with an eating disorder, while 14% of the controls and 13% of the cyclists believed that they had an eating disorder at the time of the survey. Chi square analysis revealed no significant difference between the percentage of controls and cyclists that scored within the anorexic range on the EAT-26 (16.0% vs 11.5%, respectively,χ2=1.44, p>.20). This study demonstrates that both cyclists and college females are at risk for developing eating disorders, but that participation in competitive cycling does not appear to be a potent risk factor.

Fourteen trained male anabolic steroid-using bodybuilders (SBBs) (19-41 years) were recruited for the study. Three-day diet records were obtained from SBBs and analyzed. A resting venous blood sample was drawn, and serum/plasma was subsequently analyzed for various nutritionally related factors. Results showed that mean dietary energy (4,469 +/- 1,406 kcal), protein 252 +/- 109 g), and vitamin and mineral intakes of SBBs greatly exceeded U.S. Recommended Dietary Allowances. Dietary cholesterol intake was 2.8 times the recommended levels. Mean serum/plasma nutrient concentrations of SBBs were within normal range. However, individual SBBs had a number of serum/plasma values outside of the normal or recommended range, the most notable of which was hypercalcemia, which was present in 42% of SBBs. Serum/plasma lipids were such as to increase the risk of cardiovascular disease in these subjects.

The effects of treadmill exercise (20 m/min, five days/wk, one hr/day) on growth and tissue ascorbic acid (AA) concentrations were investigated in 40 young, male guinea pigs. Animals were fed ad libitium an AA-free diet which was supplemented with AA. AA was administered daily via gavage feeding. Animals were divided into two groups, exercise (E) and sedentary (S). Food consumption and body weight were recorded. After eight weeks, animals were sacrificed and blood taken via heart puncture. Liver, spleen, adrenals and kidneys were removed, weighed and frozen. Plasma and organ tissues were analyzed for AA. Results indicated that exercise had no significant effect on growth. Growth was within normal range. Exercised animals had significantly (p<0.05) lower AA concentrations in liver (E, 3.29±0.63; S, 3.73±0.58 mg/100 g, mean±SD) and adrenal (E, 18.06±5.41; S, 21.98±7.88 mg/100 g) tissue as compared with sedentary guinea pigs. In summary, moderate running significantly reduced the AA concentration of liver and adrenal glands. These results suggest that AA requirement may be increased with moderate exercise.

Exercise-induced chromium (Cr) losses and marginal Cr intakes may place athletes in a suboptimal state for Cr nutritional status, possibly resulting in impaired insulin function. The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of a synthetic trivalent Cr-nicotinic acid (NA) supplement on insulin controlled variables in athletes. Thirty-four college-age male bodybuilders (BB) were randomly assigned to three groups: placebo (P), n=11; 200 μg Cr−1.8 mg NA (1X), n=12; or 800 μg Cr−7.2 mg NA (4X), n=11. Supplements were ingested daily for 8 weeks and training was controlled. Twelve hr fasting insulin, glucose, total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride, HDL-cholesterol, TC:HDL, LDL-cholesterol, and one hr post-challenge insulin and glucose values were determined at pre- and post-supplementation periods. All pre-supplementation values were within normal ranges. ANOVAs revealed two significant interactions. Mean TC in the P group increased from 139.9 to 153.4 mg/dl, yet decreased from 147.9 to 126.8 mg/dl and 159.2 to 131.3 mg/dl in the 1X and 4X groups, respectively (p<.03). Mean TC:HDL increased from 3.02 to 3.73 in the P group and decreased from 3.62 to 3.37 and 3.43 to 3.27 in the 1X and 4X groups, respectively (p<.04). Differences in insulin concentration and glucose tolerance, markers of insulin function, were not significant between groups. Since some lipid parameters were altered, yet glucose tolerance was unchanged, these data support independent effects of Cr on glucose and lipid metabolism.

This investigation evaluated the iron and nutritional status of 12 highly trained aerobic dance instructors who did not take iron supplements (ANS) and 8 who did (AS). A control group (C) consisted of 10 age matched controls. The aerobic instructors had exercised for approximately 3.8 days/wk, 56 min/session for the past 7 yrs. There were no significant differences among groups for energy intake, carbohydrate, protein, fat, nonheme iron, heme iron, or total iron intake (excluding supplemental iron). But both exercise groups had lower ferritin values than the control group. There was also a significant difference in mean cell volume (MCV), with both exercise groups having greater values than the control group. There were no differences among groups for serum iron, total iron binding capacity, transferrin saturation, hematocrit, or hemoglobin. One in three aerobic dance instructors had serum ferritin values below 12 micrograms.L-1. Results indicate that women exercise leaders have iron profiles that are similar to other groups of female athletes. The increased MCV values suggest runners' macrocytosis or an exercise induced macrocytosis.

As the biologically active component of glucose tolerance factor (GTF), the essential trace mineral chromium is now being marketed to athletes. GTF potentiates insulin activity and is responsible for normal insulin function. Thus, insulin's effects on carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism are dependent upon the maintenance of adequate chromium stores. Due to excessive chromium loss and marginal chromium intake, athletes may have an increased requirement for chromium. Therefore, in some circumstances the dietary supplementation of a chromium compound may be efficacious. The restoration and maintenance of chromium stores via supplementation would promote optimal insulin efficiency, necessary for high-level athletic performance. However, potential anabolic effects of enhanced insulin function would likely be marginal, and reports of short-term anabolic increases from the supplementation of an organic chromium compound need to be confirmed.

Normotensive and hypertensive pregnant women participated in a study to determine the effects of calcium supplementation on blood pressure. Subjects were randomly assigned to control or supplemented groups (1000 mg Ca/d). Blood pressure and serum total and ionic calcium were measured during the 20-wk supplementation period. Calcium supplementation had a significant lowering effect on diastolic blood pressure over the course of the study in the hypertensive group only. The hypertensive control subjects' mean serum ionic calcium value decreased significantly (P less than 0.05) over the course of the experiment. A significant (P less than 0.05) inverse relationship was observed between dietary calcium intake and blood pressure (r = -0.386 for systolic pressure and -0.359 for diastolic pressure).

Riboflavin (B2) status was determined in trained female athletes (n=13) and untrained female subjects (n=14). Groups were similar in age, height and weight. Subjects ingesting large quantities of supplemental or dietary riboflavin were excluded from the study. Dietary intake information was obtained and evaluated for B2 content. Riboflavin status was evaluated using the erythrocyte glutathione reductase activity coefficient (EGRAC) and urinary riboflavin excretion. Results indicated that total riboflavin intake per 24 hr was significantly greater (p<0.05) in the athletic group. However, no significant difference in intake was noted when B2 consumption was expressed as intake/ 1000 kcal consumed (1.0±0.4 mg and 0.9±0.2 mg, athletes and untrained, X±SD). While all subjects had normal EGRAC values, athletes tended to have slightly higher (p=0.09) values when compared to untrained females (1.06±0.06 vs 1.01±0.07). Total riboflavin excretion/24 hr was not different in athletes (98±51 mcg) versus untrained females (86±16 mcg) although riboflavin excretion/g creatinine was somewhat lower (p=0.1) in athletes (63±26 mcg/g) than in untrained females (82±28 mcg/g). Five athletes and five untrained subjects with the lowest riboflavin intakes were also compared. No significant differences were noted for EGRAC values or total urinary riboflavin excretion. However, athletes in the subgroup excreted significantly less (p<0.05) B2/g creatinine than did the untrained subgroup (50.8±15.5 and 81.3±16.7 mcg/g, respectively). Findings from the present study suggest that female athletes were able to maintain adequate riboflavin status from dietary intake alone.

This study investigated the effect of diet, exercise and 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA), a mammary-tumor carcinogen, on food intake, energy consumption, body weight and body composition in virgin female BALB/c mice. Interactions were examined among three diet conditions (standard AIN-76A, restricted AIN-76A and high fat AIN-76A diet), two exercise conditions (with and without treadmill exercise) and two treatment conditions (carcinogen or corn oil sham). Mice were randomized to one of 12 groups at 6 wk of age; beginning at 8 wk of age, all mice received either 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (1 mg/0.2 mL corn oil) or 0.2 mL of corn oil via gastric tube once each week for six consecutive weeks. Exercise in a rotating-drum treadmill was initiated at 10 wk of age and was increased to a final rate of 6 m/min for 60 min, 5 d/wk. Mice were killed at 24 wk of age, confirmed to be tumor-free and analyzed for protein and fat content, from which body energy was calculated. Energy consumption was highest in the standard diet-fed groups followed by the high fat diet-fed groups and the restricted diet-fed groups. The groups fed the standard diet and restricted diet had similar body weight and carcass energy. Exercise or DMBA treatment generally reduced food consumption, energy intake, body weight and carcass energy. In summary, diet, exercise and DMBA all had pronounced effects on energy consumption, which in turn affected body composition. These treatments may influence expression of breast cancer via their effects on body composition.

Seven highly trained female cyclists (age 22 +/- 5 yr, height 165 +/- 6 cm, weight 60 +/- 5 kg, VO2max 55 +/- 6 ml.min-1.kg-1, mean +/- SD) consumed, for 1 wk each, isocaloric diets containing varying levels of carbohydrate, protein, and fat designated as low carbohydrate (LCHO), moderate carbohydrate (MCHO), and high carbohydrate (HCHO). Diets were administered in random order, and each subject consumed all three diet treatments. At the end of each weekly diet treatment, subjects rode on a cycle ergometer at 80% VO2max until fatigued. Cyclists continued light training during the diet treatments. Following each diet treatment and immediately prior to the fatiguing cycle ergometer ride, cyclists completed a Profile of Mood States (POMS) questionnaire. The POMS yields measures of tension (T), depression (D), anger (A), vigor (V), fatigue (F), and confusion (C), as well as providing a total mood score (TMS). Results indicated that subjects on LCHO had significantly (P less than or equal to 0.05) greater T, D, A, and TMS and less V compared with MCHO and HCHO. There were no significant differences between MCHO and HCHO. In the present study, LCHO in conjunction with training and exercise adversely affected the mood state of trained female cyclists as compared with MCHO and HCHO diets.

This study evaluated the concurrent effects of diet (standard AIN-76A, restricted AIN-76A and high-fat diet) and moderate rotating-drum treadmill exercise on the incidence of 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene-induced mammary carcinomas in virgin female BALB/cMed mice free of murine mammary tumor virus. Exercise significantly reduced food consumption in the groups fed the standard diet and high fat diet. Although food consumption varied widely, final body weight was similar in all groups. Exercise had no effect on mammary tumor incidence in the standard diet-fed groups (without exercise, 47%; with exercise, 45%); however, exercise reduced mammary tumor incidence in the other groups as follows: restricted diet/no exercise, 28%; restricted diet/with exercise, 13%; high fat diet/no exercise, 31%; high fat diet/with exercise, 19%. Restricting food intake reduced mammary tumor incidence, but had no effect on body weight. Although energy intake was related to mammary tumor incidence, neither body weight nor dietary fat predicted tumor incidence.

Dietary status was evaluated in eight highly trained female cyclists. Each cyclist kept a 3-day weighed food record. Diets were analyzed for nutrient content using a computerized software package. Blood was also obtained and evaluated for hemoglobin, hematocrit, and albumin. For an athletic group, the cyclists' diets were found to be low in energy (85% RDA) and carbohydrate (4.4 gm/kg body weight per day). Mean daily dietary intakes were well below the RDAs for folacin (76% RDA), magnesium (81%), iron (59%), and zinc (48%). In addition, more than one-third of the cyclists failed to consume 67% of the RDA for the following micronutrients: pyridoxine, folacin, cobalamin, vitamin E, magnesium, iron, and zinc. Hemoglobin (135 gm/L), hematocrit (0.39), and albumin (45 gm/L) values were all normal, although most hemoglobin values were in the lower 50% of normal range. Foods such as meats, poultry, fish, beans, peas, and nuts were low or absent from the diets of most athletes. Dietary quality in this group of female cyclists could have been greatly improved with the addition of more of those foods. These athletes could benefit from nutrition education and diet counseling.