The study reports on the differences between theoretically expected and effectively obtained volume fractions of THF hydrate depending on the THF-H2O ratio in the initial solution against the background of using it as a substitute for natural hydrate in laboratory simulations. Besides the stoichiometric solution, initial solutions with either H2O or THF as excess phase were prepared to define the wanted volume of hydrate in advance. In order to achieve a chemical equilibrium a complete conversion of H2O and THF into THF hydrate and the presence of a pure excess phase is impossible. Based on the specific enthalpy of hydrateand ice melting gained from calorimetric measurements, considerably lower than expected hydrate volumes are concluded. For the stoichiometric solution, containing 19.1 Wt% THF, enthalpy recalculations and the occurrence of an ice melting endotherm indicate incomplete conversion with a residual of 4.3 Vol% unconverted THF-H2O solution. The deviations from expectations increase with decreasing amount of aspired THF hydrate saturation and are stronger when formed from H2O excess solutions with up to 25 Vol% less hydrate than projected for full conversion. THF-rich solutions form hydrate with melting enthalpies that recalculate for up to 15 Vol% hydrate less than theoretical assumptions. In samples with initial THF concentrations below 5 Wt% and above 82.7 Wt% no hydrate formation was evident. Based on the results we propose corrections to the initial solutions when defined THF hydrate volumes are required. Furthermore, THF excess and temperatures below zero assure stable conditions for hydrate-liquid setting at atmospheric pressure.

The study reports on the differences between theoretically expected and effectively obtained volume fractions of THF hydrate depending on the THF-H2O ratio in the initial solution against the background of using it as a substitute for natural hydrate in laboratory simulations. Besides the stoichiometric solution, initial solutions with either H2O or THF as excess phase were prepared to define the wanted volume of hydrate in advance. In order to achieve a chemical equilibrium a complete conversion of H2O and THF into THF hydrate and the presence of a pure excess phase is impossible. Based on the specific enthalpy of hydrate- and ice melting gained from calorimetric measurements, considerably lower than expected hydrate volumes are concluded. For the stoichiometric solution, containing 19.1 Wt% THF, enthalpy recalculations and the occurrence of an ice melting endotherm indicate incomplete conversion with a residual of 4.3 Vol% unconverted THF-H2O solution. The deviations from expectations increase with decreasing amount of aspired THF hydrate saturation and are stronger when formed from H2O excess solutions with up to 25 Vol% less hydrate than projected for full conversion. THF-rich solutions form hydrate with melting enthalpies that recalculate for up to 15 Vol% hydrate less than theoretical assumptions. In samples with initial THF concentrations below 5 Wt% and above 82.7 Wt% no hydrate formation was evident. Based on the results we propose corrections to the initial solutions when defined THF hydrate volumes are required. Furthermore, THF excess and temperatures below zero assure stable conditions for hydrateliquid setting at atmospheric pressure. (C) 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

The study reported here evaluates the degree to which metals, salt anions and organic compounds are released from shales by exposure to water, either in its pure form or mixed with additives commonly employed during shale gas exploitation. The experimental conditions used here were not intended to simulate the exploitation process itself, but nevertheless provided important insights into the effects additives have on solute partition behaviour under oxic to sub-oxic redox conditions.In order to investigate the mobility of major (e.g. Ca, Fe) and trace (e.g. As, Cd, Co, Mo, Pb, U) elements and selected organic compounds, we performed leaching tests with black shale samples from Bornholm, Denmark and Lower Saxony, Germany. Short-term experiments (24 h) were carried out at ambient pressure and temperatures of 100 degrees C using five different lab-made stimulation fluids. Two long-term experiments under elevated pressure and temperature conditions at 100 degrees C/100 bar were performed lasting 6 and 2 months, respectively, using a stimulation fluid containing commercially-available biocide, surfactant, friction reducer and clay stabilizer.Our results show that the amount of dissolved constituents at the end of the experiment is independent of the pH of the stimulation fluid but highly dependent on the composition of the black shale and the buffering capacity of specific components, namely pyrite and carbonates. Shales containing carbonates buffer the solution at pH 7-8. Sulphide minerals (e.g. pyrite) become oxidized and generate sulphuric acid leading to a pH of 2-3. This low pH is responsible for the overall much larger amount of cations dissolved from shales containing pyrite but little to no carbonate. The amount of elements released into the fluid is also dependent on the residence time, since as much as half of the measured 23 elements show highest concentrations within four days. Afterwards, the concentration of most of the elemental species decreased pointing to secondary precipitations. Generally, in our experiments less than 15% of each analysed element contained in the black shale was mobilised into the fluid. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

In this study, the bulk thermal conductivity (TC) of 26 rock samples representing different types of granulite-facies rocks, i.e., felsic, intermediate and mafic granulites, from the Southern Granulite Province, India, is measured at dry and saturated conditions with the optical-scanning method. Thermal conductivity is also calculated from modal mineralogy (determined by XRD and EPMA), applying several mixing models commonly used in thermal studies. Most rocks are fine- to medium-grained equigranular in texture. All samples are isotropic to weakly anisotropic and possess low porosities (<2%). Measured TC values range between 2.5 and 3.0 Wm(-1) K-1 for felsic granulites, between 2.5 and 3.5 W for intermediate granulites and between 2.4 and 2.7 Wm(-1) K-1 for mafic granulites. Considering this data and literature compilations, rocks representative for the lower continental crust typically display values between 2 and 3 Wm(-1) K-1 at ambient temperature and pressure conditions. Depending on the mixing model and the mineral TC value used in the calculations, measured and calculated bulk TC could be properly fitted. For mean values of mineral TCs, the harmonic mean provides an almost perfect fit, with a mean deviation of -1 +/- 6% (1 sigma). However, the implication of that correspondence would be that minerals and pores are predominantly aligned parallel, which is in apparent contrast to the texture of the rocks studied here. The geometric mean, which does not consider any layering of minerals or pores in the rock and, thus, should be in better harmony with the textural characteristics of the studied high-grade rocks, matches the measured TC data very well, if minimal minerals TCs reported in the literature are applied (mean deviation 5 +/- 8%). Thus, if samples appropriate for laboratory measurements (in terms of sample size or physical-chemical-mechanical condition) are not available, bulk TC of high-grade metamorphic rocks with low anisotropy and porosity could be satisfactorily good assessed from modal mineralogy, using the data sets for mineral TC applied in this study. Further work is required on the applicability of mixing models to compute TC of other rock types, e.g., of igneous and sedimentary rocks. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Detrital layers in lake sediments are recorders of extreme flood events. However, their use for establishing time series of past floods is limited by lack in understanding processes of detrital layer formation. Therefore, we monitored hydro‐sedimentary dynamics in Lake Mondsee (Upper Austria) and its main tributary, Griesler Ache, over a 3‐year period from January 2011 to December 2013. Precipitation, discharge and turbidity were recorded continuously at the river outlet to the lake and compared to sediment fluxes trapped with 3 to 12 days resolution at two locations in the lake basin, in a distance of 0·9 (proximal) and 2·8 km (distal) to the Griesler Ache inflow. Within the 3‐year observation period, 26 river floods of different magnitude (10 to 110 m3 s−1) have been recorded resulting in variable sediment fluxes to the lake (4 to 760 g m−2 d−1) including the ‘century‐scale’ flood event in June 2013. The comparison of hydrological and sedimentological data revealed (i) a rapid sedimentation within 3 days after the peak runoff in the proximal and within 6 to 10 days in the distal lake basin; (ii) empirical flood thresholds for triggering sediment flux at the lake floor increasing from the proximal (20 m3 s−1) to the distal lake basin (30 m3 s−1) and (iii) various factors that control the detrital sediment transport in the lake. The amount of sediment transported to the lake is controlled by runoff and catchment sediment availability. The distribution of detrital sediment within the lake basin is mainly driven by mesopycnal interflows and closely linked to flood duration and the season in which a flood occurred. The combined hydro‐sedimentary monitoring revealed detailed insights into processes of flood layer formation in a meso‐scale peri‐Alpine lake and, thereby, improves the interpretation of the depositional record of flood layers.

Extensive vein-type mica deposits at Elahera in north-central Sri Lanka are associated with meta-ultrabasite (MUB) boudins in impure marbles. Mineralization occurs as discontinuous, lenticular bodies concordant with the impure marbles at the contacts with MUB. Impure marbles show typical granulite facies assemblages overprinted by retrograde minerals. The original assemblages of MUBs have been texturally and mineralogically replaced completely, but the alteration did not progress into impure marble country rocks. The alteration products are mainly phlogopite with minor tremolite, calcite and quartz. The micas have likely been formed as a result of the breakdown of diopside in the MUBs. Rock textures and chemical data of whole rocks and minerals suggest that the alteration is due to infiltration of external hydrothermal fluid through the contacts of MUB boudinage layer and impure marbles. The calcium, magnesium and CO2 required for formation of alteration minerals may have been acquired from the host rock, whereas silica, K, Cl and Al were externally derived and transported with the fluid. The most likely source of hydrothermal fluid is exsolved fluid from nearby granitic pegmatites, based on field relations showing preferred contents of mica near pegmatite contacts.

Highly saline geothermal fluids typically contain a complex mixture of metals that are responsible for precipitation of various minerals during the operation of geothermal plants. This has resulted in significant clogging of the production well at the geothermal site Gross Schonebeck (Germany).A large number of different sample types have been collected from this site including solid precipitates from filters above ground, directly from the borehole fill, and from the material flushed out by various well cleaning operations. The sampled material filling the well is predominantly composed of native copper (Cu-0), barite (BaSO4), magnetite (Fe3O4), and lead (Pb) bearing phases such as laurionite (PbOHCI), as well as minor amounts of calcite (CaCO3), and an amorphous phase containing mainly Si, Fe, Ca, Pb, and Al.While some minerals such as barite precipitate due to oversaturation upon cooling, the formation of native copper requires a redox reaction, that can be induced by reduction of Cu(I) or Cu(II) by elemental iron (Fe-0). Results from this study indicate that highly concentrated Cu and Pb containing fluids are characteristic for the host rock, which is Permian Rotliegend sandstone with an underlying Permo-Carboniferous volcanic rock. Due to the high salinity of the formation fluids, heavy metals can be enriched in these waters by formation of aqueous metal chloride complexes. When this fluid comes in contact with the Fe-0 of the carbon steel liner, the Cu is immediately reduced and precipitation occurs. As further corrosion products, magnetite (Fe3O4) and (X-ray amorphous) Fe(II) phases have been identified by Mossbauer spectroscopy. The formation of the mineral laurionite consumes both Pb and hydroxide ions. Thus, its precipitation decreases the pH-value resulting in a proton excess which is most likely consumed by calcite dissolution, resulting in buffering the pH to around neutral.The clogging process of the well is accelerated by frequently alternating periods of fluid production and shut-in providing repeatedly "fresh" (metal-rich) reservoir fluid which subsequently reacts with the casing or oversaturates upon cooling. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

From November 2006 to January 2010, a sediment trap that was cleared monthly was deployed in Lake Challa, a deep stratified freshwater lake on the eastern slope of Mt. Kilimanjaro in southern Kenya. Geochemical data from sediment trap samples were compared with a broad range of limnological and meteorological parameters to characterize the effect of single parameters on productivity and sedimentation processes in the crater basin. During the southern hemisphere summer (November—March), when the water temperature is high and the lake is biologically productive (nondiatom algae), calcite predominated in the sediment trap samples. During the “long rain” season (March—May) a small amount of organic matter and lithogenic material caused by rainfall appeared. This was followed by the cool and windy months of the southern hemisphere winter (June—October) when diatoms were the main component, indicating a diatom bloom initiated by improvement of nutrient availability related to upwelling processes. The sediment trap data support the hypothesis that the light—dark lamination couplets, which are abundant in Lake Challa cores, reflect seasonal delivery to the sediments of diatom‐rich particulates during the windy months and diatom‐poor material during the wet season. However, interannual and spatial variability in upwelling and productivity patterns, as well as El Niño—Southern Oscillation (ENSO)‐related rainfall and drought cycles, exert a strong influence on the magnitude and geochemical composition of particle export to the hypolimnion of Lake Challa.

We report the results of our investigations on the catchment area, lake surface sediments, and hydrology of the high altitude alpine Tso Moriri Lake, NW Himalayas (India). Our results indicate that the lake is currently alkaline, and thermally stratified with an oxic bottom layer. Results from hydrochemistry and isotopic composition (delta O-18 and delta D) of inflowing streams and lake waters show that Tso Moriri Lake is an evaporative lake with contributions from both westerly source (snow melt) and Indian summer monsoon precipitation. Geochemical and mineralogical investigations on the catchment and lake surface sediments reveal the presence of authigenic aragonite in modern lake sediment. The lithogenic components reflect the inflow and sorting processes during transport into the lake, whereas the authigenic carbonate fraction can be linked to the changes in ([precipitation+meltwater]/evaporation) (I/E) balance within the lake. The spatial variability in grain size distribution within the lake surface sediments shows that the grain size data can be utilised as a proxy for transport energy and shoreline proximity in the lake basin. We have evaluated the applicability of commonly applied environmentally sensitive proxies (isotopes, mineralogy, weathering indices) for palaeoenvironmental reconstruction in the Tso Moriri Lake. Our results show that the commonly used weathering index (Rb/Sr) is not applicable due to Sr contribution from authigenic carbonates. The useful weathering indices in Tso Moriri Lake are the Si/Al and the Chemical Proxy of Alteration (CPA). Since the carbonates are formed by evaporative processes, their presence and isotopic values can be used as indicators of I/E changes in the lake.

Event layers in lake sediments are indicators of past extreme events, mostly the results of floods or earthquakes. Detailed characterisation of the layers allows the discrimination of the sedimentation processes involved, such as surface runoff, landslides or subaqueous slope failures. These processes can then be interpreted in terms of their triggering mechanisms. Here we present a 40 ka event layer chronology from Lake Suigetsu, Japan. The event layers were characterised using a multi-proxy approach, employing light microscopy and mu XRF for microfacies analysis. The vast majority of event layers in Lake Suigetsu was produced by flood events (362 out of 369), allowing the construction of the first long-term, quantitative (with respect to recurrence) and well dated flood chronology from the region. The flood layer frequency shows a high variability over the last 40 ka, and it appears that extreme precipitation events were decoupled from the average long-term precipitation. For instance, the flood layer frequency is highest in the Glacial at around 25 ka BP, at which time Japan was experiencing a generally cold and dry climate. Other cold episodes, such as Heinrich Event 1 or the Late Glacial stadial, show a low flood layer frequency. Both observations together exclude a simple, straightforward relationship with average precipitation and temperature. We argue that, especially during Glacial times, changes in typhoon genesis/typhoon tracks are the most likely control on the flood layer frequency, rather than changes in the monsoon front or snow melts. Spectral analysis of the flood chronology revealed periodic variations on centennial and millennial time scales, with 220 yr. 450 yr and a 2000 yr cyclicity most pronounced. However, the flood layer frequency appears to have not only been influenced by climate changes, but also by changes in erosion rates due to, for instance, earthquakes. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Macrocrysts of corundum, ilmenite, and spinel-group minerals from alluvial deposits of the Eger Rift were studied for composition, texture, and mineral inclusions. All macrocrysts show usually magmatic corrosion textures indicating disequilibrium with the transporting alkali-basalt magma. Corundum grains, exclusively sapphires, were classified by trace-element signatures as magmatic and metamorphic types. Some sapphire grains show erratic compositions that may have resulted from a metasomatic overprint. The inclusion inventory of magmatic corundum suggests crystallization from a differentiated alkaline silicate melt. Corundum itself was never observed as an inclusion mineral. Magnesium- and Fe3+-rich ilmenite, described as typical mantle-derived species, is the dominant heavy mineral in almost all alluvial deposits of the Eger Rift. Most discrete macrocrysts are similar in appearance and composition to kimberlite- and basanite-related ilmenite. Ilmenite included in alluvial corundum and zircon grains differ from the bulk of discrete ilmenite grains by larger concentrations of Nb and Mn. The mantle origin of the Mg–Fe3+-rich ilmenite is confirmed by compositional and thermo-barometric comparison with ilmenite from clinoproxenitic and hornblenditic xenoliths, which probably originated in the Moho region. The Fe–Ti two-oxide geothermometry and oxygen-barometry of coexisting ilmenite–magnetite pairs yield equilibrium temperatures between 900 and 1,080 °C and oxygen fugacities log10fO2 between −0.1 and 1.1 (relative to the NNO buffer), which indicate that the upper mantle as well as the mantle/crust transition zone below the rift is at least partially oxidized. The ilmenite macrocrysts were transported from the source region to the surface by explosive alkali-basalt magmas, as implied by the presence of basaltic-pipe breccias in close vicinity to some placer deposits.

We have undertaken a high resolution palaeoclimate reconstruction on radiocarbon dated palaeolake sediments from the Spiti valley, NW Himalaya. This site lies in the climatically sensitive winter westerlies and Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM) transitional regime and provides an opportunity to reconstruct the precipitation seasonality, and extreme precipitation events that are characterised by intensified erosion. The lake sediments reveal distinct lithofacies that provide evidence of changes in depositional environment and climate during early to mid Holocene (8.7-6.1 cal ka BP). We have identified three stages during the period of lake's existence: the Stage I (8.7-7.6 cal ka BP) is marked by lake establishment; Stage II (similar to 7.6-6.8 cal ka BP) by sustained cooler periods and weakened summer monsoon, and Stage III (similar to 6.8-6.1 cal ka BP) by a shift from colder to warmer climate with stronger ISM. We have identified several short term cooler periods at ca. 8.7, 8.5, 8.3 and 7.2-6.9 cal ka BP. Based on an overview of regional climate records we show that there is an abrupt switch in precipitation seasonality ca. 6.8 cal ka BP that is followed by the onset of the intensified monsoon in the NW Himalaya. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

The Yermak Plateau is a prominent bathymetric feature of the Arctic Ocean. To the west it is bordered by the Fram Strait, which forms the only deep-water connection between the Arctic and the other global oceans. Origin, crustal nature and age of the Yermak Plateau are largely unknown. For this study, we investigated dredged rocks of two sites from the Yermak Plateau. Based on petrography, geochemistry, and geochronology, we distinguished between ice-transported and in-situ rocks. Ice-transported material was most likely derived from outcrops of the High Arctic Large Igneous Province (HALIP) on Franz Josef Land, the Siberian trap province, and presumably from northern Svalbard. Our data from the in-situ rocks, in conjunction with previously published geophysical data, show that the investigated parts of the Yermak Plateau are composed of stretched continental crust strongly affected by alkaline magmatism. The continental rocks represent a direct continuation of the exposures on northern Svalbard. Alkaline magmatism took place at ~51Ma and was related to continental rifting in an extensional setting. The melts were formed by low degrees of partial melting of the sub-continental lithospheric mantle and are probably associated with the high-amplitude magnetic anomalies described for the northeastern Yermak Plateau. Extension of the Yermak Plateau was contemporaneous with spreading of the adjacent young Eurasian Basin, and occurred during the peak of compressional deformation affecting North Greenland, Svalbard, and Ellesmere Island. These contrasting regimes were probably compensated by transpression and strike-slip movements along the DeGeer and Wegener Faults. The date of ~51Ma for extension-related magmatism also provides age constraints for the extension-related formation of the Sophia Basin (and thus for water exchange between the Eurasian Basin, the area of the DeGeer Fault and the young Norwegian-Greenland Sea), and for the sediments covering the horst-and-graben structures of the Yermak Plateau.

A quantitative simulation of interdependent diagenetic reactions in deep-sea fan sediments is presented. The model scenario describes a growing sediment column and reproduces observed diagenetic signals (distribution of dissolved, mineral, and gaseous species) and predicts the amount of in situ-generated biogenic dissolved methane and methane hydrate at ODP Leg 155, Site 938 (Amazon Fan). The approach relies on thermodynamic calculations of equilibrium reactions in aqueous solutions that are constrained by the irreversible remineralization of organic carbon. Sediments of ODE Leg 155, Site 938 are located within the gas hydrate stability zone. Methanogenesis starts at a shallow depth (10 m below seafloor). The modeled amount of in situ-generated biogenic methane exceeds the solubility of the methane, with respect to methane hydrate in a depth of 115 mbsf. Moreover, anaerobic oxidation of methane (AGM) prevents the diffusion of dissolved methane to the overlying seawater. Dissolved methane and methane hydrate are stored within the sediment column.Authigenic carbonate is the most important carbon sink in the investigated sediments of the Amazon fan. Carbon mass balance calculations reveal the studied Amazon Fan sediments are a net carbon sink. Authigenic siderite precipitation, triggered by AOM, explains the overall gain in carbon within the Amazon fan sediments. Generated methane (as methane gas, hydrate and dissolved methane) is the second most important carbon species found within the sediments. This highlights the significance of organic matter-rich high accumulation areas to biogenic methane formation and storage, and the significance of these areas as possible targets for exploration. (c) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The Aral Sea, which has been affected by lake level lowering of approximately 25 m and a salinity increase from 10 to >100 g/l since 1963, represents, along with the Amu Dary Delta a dynamic hydrological system under an arid climate regime. The system receives river water inflow at high seasonal and inter-annual variability from remote alpine source areas. In the Amu Darya Delta, there is a distinct salinity contrast between the low-salinity river water (similar to 1 g/l) and the salinity of the unconfined GW (GW(unconf): 10-95 g/l). The GW(unconf) levels are predominantly controlled by the seepage of the river water inflow and GW discharge into the shrinking Aral Sea.In June 2009 and August 2009, we sampled water from various sources including surface waters, GW(unconf), lake water and soil leachates for chemical analyses. Evaporative enrichment, precipitation/dissolution of gypsum and precipitation of calcite drive the GW(unconf) to an NaCl(SO4) water type presenting a positive correlation between Na and SO4.We model the hydrochemical evolution of the GW(unconf) in a box model which considers the capillary rise of near-surface GW, the precipitation of minerals in the unsaturated horizon and the seasonal re-flushing of adhesive residual brines and soluble salts. The model documents a rapid increase in salinity over a few annual cycles. Furthermore, the model simulations demonstrate the importance of the aeolian redistribution of soluble salts on the hydrochemical GW evolution. In a lab experiment, halite, hexahydrite and star-keyite are precipitated during the late stages of evaporative enrichment from a representative local brine.Processes specific to different water compartments plausibly explain the variations of selected element ratios. For example, the precipitation of low-Sr calcite in irrigation canals and natural river branches of the delta lowers Ca/Sr. The dissolution of gypsum in soils (Ca/Sr mole ratio similar to 150) and the possible precipitation of SrSO4 associated with Sr-depletion in adhesive residual brines increases Ca/Sr in seepage and re-increases Ca/Sr in the unconfined GW. Aral Sea water, which receives high-Ca/Sr surface and groundwater inflow, developed due to continued precipitation of high-Ca/Sr calcite the almost lowest Ca/Sr ratio (similar to 25) over time. We observed spatial variations in the GW(unconf) composition: (i) ammonium levels increase strongly due to interaction with lake sediments rich in organic matter and (ii) distinct increases in levels of nitrate, U, Mo and Se locally reflect oxygenation when GW levels decrease. The Amu Darya Delta acts as a sink for boron (uptake via terrestrial vegetation) and a source for bromide (release by degradation of organically-bound Br). Our results concerning the hydrochemical evolution of the GW(unconf) and additional data from the Aral Sea constrain the parameter 'GW discharge' in water budget models of the lake and improve the basis for palaeoclimatic interpretations of sediment records from the Aral Sea. (c) 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Introduction and Settings Batch experiments were conducted to investigate the interactions of supercritical CO2 (>7.4 MPa/ >31°C), brine and rock-forming mineral concentrates (albite, microcline, kaolinite, bentonite, biotite, muscovite, calcite, dolomite, and anhydrite) using a newly developed experimental set-up. The solid to fluid ratio was about 1:50. Experiments with mixtures of supercritical CO2 (99.5 vol.%) and SO2 or NO2 impurities (0.5 vol.%) take into account the incomplete purification of industrial captured CO2 using the oxyfuel technology. In addition, the vessels were not evacuated before the experiments and therefore contained oxygen (ca. 10 cm per experiment), which is also expected in industrially captured CO2. Before, during and after the experiments approximately 3 ml of fluids were sampled every time and analyzed for pH instantaneously and for dissolved constituents using ICP-MS and IC. After up to 1000h lasting experiments the dissolution and solution characteristics of the solids were examined by XRD, XRF, SEM and EDS, respectively.