The growing demand for renewable energy has increased the use of wood pellets as a clean and efficient biomass fuel. This study aims to evaluate the physical properties of wood pellets produced from Acacia hybrid (AC) veneer waste and Pine wood (PW) waste mixed with varying ratios. The objectives are to investigate the effect of different blend ratios of Acacia hybrid veneer waste and pine wood waste on the physical properties, specifically moisture content, density, and pellet durability index (PDI) of wood pellets, and to identify the optimal ratio that yields the most desirable pellet quality. The wood pellets were produced by blending Acacia hybrid veneer waste and Pine wood waste (AC:PW) in weight ratios of 100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75, and 0:100. The materials were dried to 10%–12% moisture before pelletizing using a pellet mill under consistent pressure and temperature. Moisture content (MC), density (ρ) and pellet durability index (PDI) were measured following the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The study found that blending Acacia hybrid veneer waste with Pine wood waste significantly improved pellet density and durability compared to the control. The moisture was lowest in pellets with 50:50 and 25:75 blends, indicating better drying and stability. The blend 50:50 achieves the highest density, and for pellet durability index, the best blend is 25:75, suggesting improved resistance to breakage. Overall, the 50:50 and 25:75 ratios produced pellet with the most desirable combination of low moisture, high density, high durability and the blend meets key ISO 17225 and ENplus quality standards for industrial wood pellet.

Ziziphus mauritiana Lam., a tropical tree from the Rhamnaceae family, is valued for its nutritional benefits and traditional medicinal uses. This study assessed the antimicrobial activity of different plant parts which are leaves, roots, bark, stems, and fruits, against Escherichia coli and Fusarium solani using methanolic extracts at 1.0 mg/mL. Streptomycin (1.0 mg/mL) and 0.8% methanol served as positive and negative controls, respectively. Plant-derived antimicrobial agents are gaining attention for their bioavailability, safety, and low resistance potential. The methanolic extracts exhibited potent antimicrobial effects, with minimum bactericidal and fungicidal concentrations (MBC/MFC) of 0.8 mg/mL for E. coli and 1.0 mg/mL for F. solani. Leaf extracts showed the strongest inhibition, with zones of 101.47 mm² for E. coli and 88.11 mm² for F. solani, followed by root extracts (86.48 mm² against F. solani). The study supports Z. mauritiana's potential in treating human diseases and underscores the need for sustainable conservation. The results also emphasize the need to conserve this underutilized species for future pharmacological applications.

Lignin extraction from bark can maximize the utilization of biomass waste, offer cost-effectiveness, and promote environmental friendliness when employed as an adhesive material in bark particleboard production. Particles of fine (0.2 to 1.0 mm), medium (1.0 to 2.5 mm), and coarse (2.5 to 12.0 mm) sizes, derived from the bark of Leucaena leucocephala, were hot-pressed using a heating plate at 175°C for 7 min to create single-layer particleboards measuring 320 mm × 320 mm × 10 mm, targeting a density of 700 kg/m3. Subsequently, the samples were trimmed and conditioned at 20°C and 65% relative humidity. In this study, we compared bark particleboard bonded with urea formaldehyde (UF) adhesive to fine-sized particleboard bonded with demethylated lignin adhesive. The results indicated that bark particleboards utilizing demethylated lignin and UF adhesives exhibited similar qualities. Coarse particleboard showed differences in modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR), while medium-sized particles exhibited significant variations in moisture content (MC) and water absorption (WA). Furthermore, the thickness swelling of coarse and medium-sized particles under wet and oven-dried conditions exhibited notable distinctions. Overall, the demethylated lignin adhesive extracted from L. leucocephala bark demonstrated similar quality to UF adhesive, with particle size correlating inversely to the strength of the bark particleboard.

Leucaena leucocephala stem bark that was eleven years old was studied for its chemical composition and usage. The samples were subjected to chemical analyses based on ASTM standard procedures after being air-dried for several days. The results found that the bark of L. leucocephala has a pH value of 6.04 and that the solubility of the bark in 1% NaOH alkali is the highest compared to the solubility in hot water (14.45%) and cold water (14.36%), while the chemical composition of the bark of L. leucocephala was ash (15.76%); extractives (8.39%); holocellulose (132.85%); hemicellulose (103.66%); cellulose (29.19%) and lignin (38.24%). Based on the findings, L. leucocephala bark was less acidic. When used as a source of carbohydrates, bark has a high solubility, and its chemical composition may have an impact on how quickly it burns when it is pyrolysed.

The inherent flammability of timber rises the concern of society about the stability and firmnessof timber materials when exposed to fire. This study illustrated the fire resistance properties oflow-density Neolamarckia cadamba timber to evaluate its charred area (CA), charred depth (CD),mass loss rate (MLR), and charring rate (CR). Three different burning durations – 60, 90, and120 min – were subjected to the timber test pieces following the NIST PS1-09 2010 standard.The CA and CD of the test pieces were measured using ImageJ before the determination ofMLR and CR. N. cadamba showed a statistically significant difference on the top CA (14040.56mm2) at 90 min compared to its side CA (1957.93 mm2). CD remained statistically unchangedfor three burning durations. Top CA increased gradually with burning durations. Side CA andCD, however, were reduced to 1957.93 and 17.84 mm2, respectively, for 90 min, before beingincreased back to 120 min. For CR and MLR, a gradual dropped in trend can be seen in theburning durations. Significant differences were detected when comparing the CR (0.30 mm/min) at 60 min with that in 90 min (0.20 mm/min), whereas the MLR was 2.15 g/m2s at 60 minwith 1.42 g/m2s at 120 min. Generally, top CA, side CA, and CD showed an increased trend inthe area and depth value. whereas CR and MLR showed the opposite.

Bambusa vulgaris Schrad was studied for its colour and strength before and after weathering process. Bamboo splits of 300 mm (length) x 20 mm (width) x original thickness were conditioned in a conditioning room at 20±2°C and 65±2% relative humidity before and after weathering for 3, 6, and 9 weeks. A Minolta colour reader and a Munsell soil colour chart were used to assess the colour changes (ΔE) and whitish value (W) of bamboo splits before and after the weathering process. Using Universal Testing Machine, the strength of weathered bamboo splits was tested. Results show the colour of bamboo splits changed dramatically (8% to 21%) over time, whereas the whitish value (W) of the bamboo splits reduced 8% to 31% after 3 to 9 weeks of exposure. Bamboo density was reduced by 3% to 17%. Modulus of Elasticity and Modulus of Rupture, in terms of strength qualities, were greatly reduced (20 MPa to 24 MPa) and (12 MPa to 16 MPa), respectively. After being exposed to the weather for 3, 6, and 9 weeks, the colour of Bambusa vulgaris changed substantially, and the density and strength of bamboo decreased.

In this study, low-density plantation timber, Paraserianthes falcataria was pretreated with 3%, 6% and 9% NaOH before densification process. Alkaline pretreatment leads to lignin reductions and cell wall structure becomes more porous. Densification was done by crushing the cell wall with hot-press machine, resulting in reduction of thickness to about 60%. Scanning electron microscopy images were captured and processed through ImageJ software. As to support the data, lignin content determination was conducted according to TAPPI T222 and the correlation coefficient between cell lumen areas and lignin content were studied statistically.

Microwave-induced in-situ catalytic co-pyrolysis of empty fruit bunch (EFB) with truck tire (TT) using a low-cost heterogeneous catalyst to produce aromatic-rich pyrolytic oil is proposed. In this study, the effect of catalyst type and catalyst-to-feedstock ratio were investigated. Three types of catalysts were used, namely activated carbon (AC), clay (CL) and calcium oxide (CaO), while the catalyst-to-feedstock ratios of 1:5, 2:5, 3:5 were investigated. Although the catalytic co-pyrolysis significantly reduced the yield, high monoaromatic hydrocarbon fraction and BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene) selectivity were observed in the pyrolytic oil. The study showed that the AC-to-feedstock ratio of 2:5 (AC-0.4) contained a high fraction of monoaromatic hydrocarbon (54.32%) with high selectivity of BTEX (30.42%). The elemental analysis also found the AC catalyst produced hydrogen rich pyrolytic oil with lower undesirable compounds, mainly from oxygenates (ketone group), nitrogen and sulphur compounds. Moreover, the catalytic co-pyrolysis using AC reduces pyrolytic oil's pH value from 4.7 (un-Cat) to pH 5.02 (AC-0.4). However, the AC catalyst had little effect in increasing the higher heating value (HHV) of pyrolytic oil from 42.29 (un-Cat) to 42.47 MJkg(-1) (AC-0.4) with a slightly decreased energy recovery from 62.0% (un-Cat) to 56.5% (AC-0.4). The residual gas analysis determined that the dominant gaseous produced from catalytic cracking using AC were CO2 and CH4. A reaction mechanism between the volatiles of EFB and TT is proposed. Overall, the study has successfully demonstrated an approach for producing pyrolytic oil with high monoaromatic fraction and high selectivity of BTEX from in-situ catalytic co-pyrolysis of EFB with TT using lowcost heterogeneous catalyst.

Bark from trees is considered a worthless raw material. However, this resource could be economically beneficial if utilized efficiently due to its rich chemical compounds. In this study, an ethanol toluene-soluble extractive, alpha-cellulose and lignin obtained from Leucaena leucocephala bark were characterized to determine their chemical functional groups. Based on FTIR spectral analysis, the results indicated that the bands of the functional groups of the extractive from the original bark remain unchanged; however, the absorbance intensity was found to be weaker in the group frequency and fingerprint regions. Removal of extractive, pectin, hemicellulose and lignin from the bark indirectly increased the strong absorbance intensity of cellulose. Broad peaks of OH stretching found in all spectra were assigned to the presence of phenolic OH and aliphatic structures for extractive and aromatic structures of lignin. It was revealed that aromatic functional groups were mainly found in the extractive, while water, carbonyl and ether were the dominant groups in cellulose, and methyl, methylene, carbonyl and carboxyl groups were enriched in lignin. Graphic abstract

Acidity, solubility and chemical properties of eleven years old of Leucaena leucocephala stem bark were investigated. The bark was peeled from the stem of tree and gentle washed in tap water to remove dirt before air-dried in the laboratory at room temperature (24 + 3°C) for 2-3 weeks. The bark was minced into coarse powder and grind to pass BS 250μm mesh sieve. After air-dried for several days, the samples were conducted to chemical analyses (ash content and pH value; solubility in 1%NaOH, hot and cold water solubility; extractive, cellulose and lignin content) based on ASTM standard methods. The results show that L. leucocephala stem bark considered as least acidic (pH value 6.04) and high ash content (15.76%). The solubility of bark components was higher in 1% NaOH (41.36%) compared to hot water (14.45%) and cold water (11.06%). Holocellulose and hemicellulose was 132.85% and 103.66%, respectively. Lignin was the major composition in L. leucocephala stem bark (38.4%) followed by cellulose (29.19%) and extractive (8.39%). This study indicated that the bark of L. leucocephala had less acidity. The high solubility of the bark potential as a carbohydrate resource, while the chemical component of the bark might influence rapid combustion during pyrolysis.

The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of some preservative treatment on the durability properties of bamboo (Gigantochloa scortechinii) strips and bamboo laminated product. The durability properties are examined by exposed the of bamboo samples to termite (Coptotermes curvignathus) for 4 weeks and white rot fungal (Pycnophorous sanguineus Wulfex Fries) for 12 weeks. The efficacy of treatments on bamboo strips and laminates against white rot and termite attacks were evaluated based on their weight loss after exposure to those biodeteriorating agents. All preservative-treated materials had resulted lower weight loss values compared to untreated and water-boiled bamboo treatment. The Water-Borne Preservatives (WBP) (5.80% weight loss) gave the best protection against termite whereas borax acid-treated (39.3%) materials had the least efficacy on protecting the strips. For the bamboo laminates, TBTO gave the best protection against termite attacks with only 8.9% of weight loss. The durability test against white rot fungal show that all preservative increased the resistance of bamboo strips and laminates. TBTO was found to be the best preservative to protect both bamboos strips (10. 7% weight loss) and laminates (9.71% weight loss). Boiling in water for 30 minutes had decreased the resistance of the strips against white rot with the weight loss value for this strip was 21.8 while 22.4% for the laminates.

The effectiveness of the hot oil treatment process on 15 year old cultivated Acacia hybrid was studied. Accelerated laboratory durability studies were conducted on the hot oil treated Acacia hybrid inoculated with fungi Coriolus versicolors, Gloeophyllum trabeum and Pycnoporus sanguineus. The logs of Acacia hybrid were harvested, segregated into bottom, middle and top portions, and later were oil-heat treated in an organic palm oil at temperatures of 180, 200 and 220 degrees C for the duration of 30, 60 and 90 min. The wood samples that were dried and ground into sawdust was air-dried again before undergoing accelerated laboratory durability tests. Untreated samples were used as control. The durability of the wood increases with an increase in temperature and duration of the treatment. The hot oil treated samples could reduce the attack of G. trabeum from 20.89%, 20.94% and 21.29% in the control samples to 0.88-4.07%, 1.22-4.84% and 1.28-4.22% at bottom, middle and top portions, respectively. The attack of C. versicolors were reduced from 26.59%, 30.28% and 34.79% in the control samples to 2.89-9.41%, 3.88-16.84 and 4.27-17.34% at bottom, middle and top portions. However, the attacked of P. sanguineus were least effective with 31.42%, 36.33% and 36.55% in control samples to 3.26-12.55%, 4.67-15.36% and 4.69-19.22% at bottom, middle and top portions. Massive colonization of mycelia occurs in vessels of the untreated Acacia hybrid wood in comparison to the hot oil treated wood when observed through scanning electron microscope.

Effect of oil heat treatment on physical properties of 3 years old Gigantochloa scortechinii Gamble bamboo was investigated. The bamboo splits within epidermis were heat-treated using crude palm oil at temperature 140°C, 180°C and 220°C for duration 30 and 60 min. The objectives were to determine the effect of oil heat treatment on physical properties of the heat-treated bamboo and to assess any significant changes on physical properties of the heat-treated bamboo. Untreated bamboo was used as comparison for each treatment conditions. The results indicated equilibrium moisture content (EMC), density and volumetric shrinkage of heat-treated bamboo decreased as the treatment temperature and time increases. The EMC and density reduction were 4-27% and 11-18% approximately. This study indicated that bamboo became less hygroscopic when subjected to higher temperature and longer heat treatment time. Volumetric shrinkage of bamboo was also reduced by the treatment conditions (17-53%). The shrinkage properties of bamboo were inversely proportional to the treatment conditions, indicating that oil heat treatment successfully imparts the dimensional stability of the bamboo.

Effect of oil heat treatment on chemical constituents of 3 years old Gigantochloa scortechinii Gamble bamboo was investigated. The bamboo splits within epidermis were heat-treated using crude palm oil at temperature 140°C, 180°C and 220°C for duration 30 and 60 min. After removed the epidermis, the samples were then grind to pass a BS 40-mesh sieve and retained on a BS 60-mesh sieve. The sawdust was air dried for several days before conducted to chemical analyses (cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin) based on TAPPI Standard Methods. The colorimetric method devised by Humprey and Kelly (1960) was adapted to analysis starch in bamboo. Reading was obtained through Baush Lomb UV Spectrophotometer at 650 mm calculated by standard reference using A.R. potato starch. Control was used as comparison for each type of test conducted. There was no significant different between control and condition at 140°C for 60 min (81.4%) of holocellulose content. The value was decreased by 2.1 to 10.7% (79.7 to 72.7%) after heating at 180 to 220°C for 30 to 60 min. The hemicellulose content of bamboo was ranged 24.1 to 27.8% after heating at 140-220°C for 30 to 60 min. The cellulose content of heat-treated bamboo was ranged 47.4 to 55.2% after reduced about 2 to 14%. Lignin content increased about 16% (26%) at 220°C/60 min after reduced approximately 1 to 5% at 140 to 180°C for 30 to 60 min. Starch content was largely reduced about 2 to 54% (4 to 1.9%) at 140 to 180°C for 30 to 60 min of treatment. The results indicated that degradation of cellulose and hemicellulose of heat-treated bamboo was attributed to plasticization of lignin during heating in the same time hydrolysed the starch content.

Oil palm trunks found in abundant and considered as an agriculture waste were investigated as alternative to dimensional wood. The trunks are of no economic importance in their natural form. However, once converted into the form of Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL) their properties improved tremendously. This study highlighted properties of the LVL made from oil palm trunks at four different positions comprising two portions height and two cross-sectional zones. These LVL have shown to behave differently when tested for their physical, mechanical and glue delaminating properties. Testing on all the LVL specimens were done in accordance with the Japanese Agricultural Standard SE-11, 2003. © 2008 Academic Journals Inc.

The chemical constituents of oil-cured 3 years-old tropical bamboo Gigantochloa scortechinii were investigated in this study. The bamboo splits were oil-cured using organic palm oil at temperature of 140, 180 and 220°C for duration of 30 and 60 min. The bamboo splits were then grinded into small particles and air-dried prior to the chemical analysis to obtain the compositions: holocellulose, hemicellulose, cellulose, lignin and starch. Untreated samples were used as control for comparison. The results obtained showed an overall reduction in the chemicals constituents after treatments compared to the control. Significant changes were however noted after the bamboo samples underwent treatment at temperature above 180°C. The holocellulose content decreased slightly from 81.4 to 79.7% for treatment conditions at 220°C for 30 min. On the other hand holocellulose content diminished significantly when the sample was treated at 180°C for 30 min and further treatment resulted in 72.7% holocellulose content at 220°C for 60 min treatment. The hemicellulose content of bamboo ranged from 24.1 to 27.8% when treated at 140 and 220°C for 30 to 60 min, respectively. The cellulose content of heat-treated samples ranged 47.4 to 55.2%. Starch contents were largely reduced from 4.1 to 1.9% for control to oil-cured samples at 220°C for 60 min. © 2009 Asian Network for Scientific Information.

The suitability of using an eco-friendly oil curing process was investigated on cultivated Bambusa vulgaris bamboo in order to prolong their service life span. B. vulgaris was chosen as it is a type of bamboo species that is easy to cultivate and has good physical as well as mechanical properties. Matured bamboo culms of 4 year-old from internodes 5, 6 and 7 in green and air-dried conditions were heat treated. The heat treatment process used palm oil as the heating medium at temperatures of 140, 180 and 220°C for durations of 30, 60 and 90 min. The air-dried culms exhibited overall higher physical, strength and durability properties than the green and untreated culms. The Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) values of heat treated bamboo in bending was reduced by 13 to 42% in green and by 3 to 29% in air-dried conditions. The compression strength were reduced by 18 to 33% in green and by 14 to 27% in air-dried ones. The heat treated bamboo lost from 5 to 34% of their initial weight after undergoing 12 months of ground-contact tests for both green and air-dried conditions. © 2007 Academic Journals.

A study was undertaken to determine the effect of high temperature curing on dimensional stability and bonding quality of bamboo strips (Gigantochloa scortechinii and G. brang). Strips with epidermis removed were subjected to high temperature conditions using palm oil as heating medium. The temperatures applied were 140,160 and 180°C for durations of 30, 60 and 120 min. The treatment improved the dimensional stability and reduced the moisture absorption by bamboos strips. Anti-swelling efficiency (ASE) values increased as the durations of treatment increased irrespective of the treatment temperature. The best treatment condition for G. scortechinii to achieve maximum ASE value (85.6%) was 180°C and 120 min while for G. brang, the maximum ASE value (91.7%) could be attained with treatment condition of 180°C and 60 min. In general, the high temperature treatment significantly reduced the shear strength of the bamboo laminates. Between the two bamboo species, the reduction in shear strength was more pronounced in G. scortechinii than in G. brang. The optimum oil treatment condition for G. scortechinii in order to meet the minimum standard requirement of glue bond quality for plywood was 160°C and 30 min, while for G. brang it was 180°C and 60 min. © KFRI 2007.