Bovine digital dermatitis (DD) is a severe infectious disease causing lameness in dairy cattle worldwide and is an important ruminant welfare problem that has considerable economic issues. Bovine DD is endemic in many regions worldwide and it is important to understand this major disease so that effective control strategies can be identified. There is substantial evidence that specific treponeme phylotypes play an important causative role in bovine DD. This review considers current research, including DD Treponema spp. investigations, associated DD pathobiology, and current and potential treatment and control options. Epidemiological data, alongside new microbiological data, help delineate important transmission routes and reservoirs of infection that allow effective interventions to be identified. Better on-farm housing hygiene, pasture access, routine footbathing and claw trimming with disinfected equipment need to be implemented to significantly reduce the incidence of DD. There is a paucity of peer reviewed research into both commonly used and novel treatments. In vitro antimicrobial susceptibility studies of DD treponemes and effective treatment of human treponematoses clearly indicate that antibiotics frequently selected for DD treatments are not the most efficacious. Whilst there are understandable concerns over milk withdrawal times in dairy cattle, more needs to be done to identify, license and implement more appropriate antibiotic treatments, since continued overuse of less efficacious antibiotics, applied incorrectly, will lead to increased disease recurrence and transmission. More research is needed into methods of preventing DD that circumvent the use of antibiotics, including vaccination and transmission blocking studies, to reduce or hopefully eradicate DD in the future.

Contagious ovine digital dermatitis (CODD) is an important foot disease in sheep, with significant animal welfare and economic implications. It is thought that CODD emerged from bovine digital dermatitis (BDD) via treponemal bacteria. With wildlife species such as elk now suffering a CODD-like disease, it is imperative to clarify these disease etiologies. A large investigation into treponemal association with CODD is warranted. CODD lesions (n = 58) and healthy sheep foot tissues (n = 56) were analyzed by PCR for the three BDD-associated Treponema phylogroups and two other lameness-associated bacteria, Dichelobacter nodosus and Fusobacterium necrophorum. Spirochete culture was also attempted on CODD lesions. "Treponema medium/Treponema vincentii-like," "Treponema phagedenis-like," and Treponema pedis spirochetes were identified in 39/58 (67%), 49/58 (85%), and 41/58 (71%) of CODD lesions, respectively. One or more BDD-associated Treponema phylogroups were detected in 100% of CODD lesions. Healthy foot tissues did not amplify BDD-associated Treponema phylogroup DNA. D. nodosus and F. necrophorum were present in 34/58 (59%) and 41/58 (71%) of CODD lesions and 22/56 (39%) and 5/56 (9%) of healthy foot tissues, respectively. Thirty-two spirochetes were isolated from CODD lesions, with representatives clustering with, and indistinguishable from, each of the three BDD-associated Treponema phylogroups based on 16S rRNA gene comparisons. This study for the first time demonstrates a high-level association for BDD treponeme phylogroups in CODD and their absence from healthy tissues, supporting the hypothesis that BDD treponemes play a primary causative role in CODD and confirming that the specific PCR assays are an effective differential diagnostic tool for CODD.

Digital dermatitis is a painful foot disease compromising welfare in dairy cattle. The disease has a complex multibacterial aetiology, but little is known about its pathogenesis. In this study, gene expression in skin biopsies from five bovine digital dermatitis lesions and five healthy bovine feet was compared using RNA-Seq technology. Differential gene expression was determined after mapping transcripts to the Btau 4.0 genome. Pathway analysis identified gene networks involving differentially expressed transcripts. Bovine digital dermatitis lesions had increased expression of mRNA for α2-macroglobulin-like 1, a protein potentially involved in bacterial immune evasion and bacterial survival. There was increased expression of keratin 6A and interleukin 1β mRNA in bovine digital dermatitis lesions, but reduced expression of most other keratin and keratin-associated genes. There was little evidence of local immune reactions to the bacterial infection present in lesions.

The bacterial load and degree of antibiotic resistance present in untreated and antibiotic-treated semen samples were investigated in five bulls standing at a cattle-breeding centre. Bacterial load was determined by colony counts from semen samples cultured on brain heart infusion and nutrient agar plates. Antibiotic resistance in these bacteria was assessed by measuring the diameter of bacterial growth inhibition zones around discs containing different concentrations of antibiotics. Representative antibiotic-resistant bacterial isolates were selected for identification. Untreated semen contained few culturable bacteria, and all were completely sensitive to gentamycin, spectinomycin and lincomycin: six of the isolates showed some resistance to tylosin. In semen to which antibiotics had been added as part of the routine production process, two isolates were sensitive to all of the antibiotics tested, and the remainder were resistant to all. Resistant Gram-negative isolates that were identified included Pseudomonas and Stenotrophomonas spp. both in the class Gammaproteobacteria and a Sphingomonas sp. which is in the class Alphaproteobacteria.

Plasma progesterone concentrations were estimated for 381 nulliparous dairy heifers from eight farms on days 4–6 after insemination. Heifers were synchronised using two treatments of prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) 11 days apart. Alternate heifers were treated with 1500 IU human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) at the time of sampling, and the pregnancy status assessed ∼35 days after insemination. Heifers with no corpus luteum (CL; n‐30) at the second PGF2α had lower progesterone concentrations (P<0.001) and pregnancy rates (PR; P=0.001) compared with heifers with CL (n=351, defined as cyclic). The risk of no CL increased in heifers <15 months of age (OR=7.5, P<0.001) and with body condition score <2.5 (OR=4.5, P=0.001). Those with no CL were removed from further analysis. The 20 per cent cyclic control heifers with progesterone concentrations ≤2 ng/ml on days 4–6 had lower PRs compared with those with higher concentrations (42 per cent vs 64 per cent, OR=0.3, P=0.01). There was no overall effect of hCG on PR compared with controls (51 per cent vs 60 per cent, P=0.10). However, heifers with high progesterone on days 4–6 (>2 ng/ml) had a lower PR after treatment (51 per cent vs 64 per cent, OR=0.6, P=0.02). Heifers inseminated with sexed (n=18) compared with conventional (n=333) semen had a decreased PR (33 per cent vs 57 per cent, OR=0.2, P=0.01). This study demonstrates that higher plasma progesterone concentrations as early as days 4–6 after insemination have a positive effect on first insemination PR, but there was no beneficial effect of hCG treatment on these days in dairy heifers.

Intramammary infections (IMI) during the dry period can be reduced through the use of dry cow therapy (DCT); in the future, its blanket use is likely to be questioned in the light of public concern regarding the routine use of antibiotics in food producing animals. One possible alternative is to limit DCT to cows with IMI just before drying off, which would require a quick, simple identification of sub-clinical IMI. In the present study we examined quarter milk samples obtained from 240 cows one week before and on the day of drying off, using the California mastitis test (CMT) and for IMI by bacteriological culture. The results indicated that high CMT scores at drying off may be good indicators of IMI: there was a significant association between the frequency of isolation of major pathogens and the CMT score in milk samples obtained one week before (Pearson’s χ2=27.04, df=4, p<0.001) and those at drying off (Pearson’s χ2=25.87, df=4, p<0.001).

Veterinary RecordVolume 171, Issue 24 p. 624-624 Research Investigating host genetic factors in bovine digital dermatitis R. A. Scholey BSc, PhD, Corresponding Author R. A. Scholey BSc, PhD [email protected] School of Veterinary Science, University of Liverpool, Liverpool Science Park IC2, 146 Brownlow Hill, Liverpool, L3 5RF UK Dr Scholey's present address is Department of Genetic Medicine, University of Manchester, St Mary's Hospital, 6th Floor, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9WL UKE-mail for correspondence: [email protected]Search for more papers by this authorR. W. Blowey BSc, BVSc, FRCVS, R. W. Blowey BSc, BVSc, FRCVS Wood Veterinary Group, Quedgeley, Gloucester, GL2 4NB UKSearch for more papers by this authorR. D. Murray BVM&S, DVM&S, DBR, MRCVS, DECAR, DECBHM, FHEA, R. D. Murray BVM&S, DVM&S, DBR, MRCVS, DECAR, DECBHM, FHEA School of Veterinary Science, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Neston, Cheshire, CH64 7TE UKSearch for more papers by this authorR. F. Smith BVSc, BSc, PhD, DipECAR, MRCVS, R. F. Smith BVSc, BSc, PhD, DipECAR, MRCVS School of Veterinary Science, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Neston, Cheshire, CH64 7TE UKSearch for more papers by this authorJ. Cameron OND, HNC, J. Cameron OND, HNC School of Veterinary Science, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Neston, Cheshire, CH64 7TE UKSearch for more papers by this authorJ. P. Massey BSc, PhD, J. P. Massey BSc, PhD Centre for Integrated Genomic Medical Research, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PT UKSearch for more papers by this authorW. E. Ollier BSc, PhD, FRCPath, FIBMS, W. E. Ollier BSc, PhD, FRCPath, FIBMS Centre for Integrated Genomic Medical Research, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PT UKSearch for more papers by this authorS. D. Carter BSc, PhD, FIMLS, FRCPath, S. D. Carter BSc, PhD, FIMLS, FRCPath School of Veterinary Science, University of Liverpool, Liverpool Science Park IC2, 146 Brownlow Hill, Liverpool, L3 5RF UKSearch for more papers by this author R. A. Scholey BSc, PhD, Corresponding Author R. A. Scholey BSc, PhD [email protected] School of Veterinary Science, University of Liverpool, Liverpool Science Park IC2, 146 Brownlow Hill, Liverpool, L3 5RF UK Dr Scholey's present address is Department of Genetic Medicine, University of Manchester, St Mary's Hospital, 6th Floor, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9WL UKE-mail for correspondence: [email protected]Search for more papers by this authorR. W. Blowey BSc, BVSc, FRCVS, R. W. Blowey BSc, BVSc, FRCVS Wood Veterinary Group, Quedgeley, Gloucester, GL2 4NB UKSearch for more papers by this authorR. D. Murray BVM&S, DVM&S, DBR, MRCVS, DECAR, DECBHM, FHEA, R. D. Murray BVM&S, DVM&S, DBR, MRCVS, DECAR, DECBHM, FHEA School of Veterinary Science, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Neston, Cheshire, CH64 7TE UKSearch for more papers by this authorR. F. Smith BVSc, BSc, PhD, DipECAR, MRCVS, R. F. Smith BVSc, BSc, PhD, DipECAR, MRCVS School of Veterinary Science, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Neston, Cheshire, CH64 7TE UKSearch for more papers by this authorJ. Cameron OND, HNC, J. Cameron OND, HNC School of Veterinary Science, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Neston, Cheshire, CH64 7TE UKSearch for more papers by this authorJ. P. Massey BSc, PhD, J. P. Massey BSc, PhD Centre for Integrated Genomic Medical Research, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PT UKSearch for more papers by this authorW. E. Ollier BSc, PhD, FRCPath, FIBMS, W. E. Ollier BSc, PhD, FRCPath, FIBMS Centre for Integrated Genomic Medical Research, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PT UKSearch for more papers by this authorS. D. Carter BSc, PhD, FIMLS, FRCPath, S. D. Carter BSc, PhD, FIMLS, FRCPath School of Veterinary Science, University of Liverpool, Liverpool Science Park IC2, 146 Brownlow Hill, Liverpool, L3 5RF UKSearch for more papers by this author First published: 15 December 2012 https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.101251Citations: 3Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article.Citing Literature Volume171, Issue24December 2012Pages 624-624 RelatedInformation

The fertility of 646 ewes and gimmers bred by laparoscopic artificial insemination (LAI) in the autumn of 2006 was investigated using a questionnaire and individual ewe breeding records kept for 13 commercial sheep flocks that used LAI routinely. Overall, the pregnancy rate was 66 per cent, but it was highest in ewes bred for the fourth time. Technical aspects of LAI influenced fertility: pregnancy rates were 70 per cent for ewes bred using frozen semen compared with 58 per cent when fresh semen was used (P≤0.01), and 74 per cent of ewes that travelled to an artificial insemination centre for mating conceived, compared with 62 per cent that remained on their own farm (P<0.01). Higher doses of equine chorionic gonadotrophin (>400 iu) used for oestrus synchronisation reduced pregnancy rates to only 49 per cent (P<0.001). However, the largest effect was associated with shepherds gathering, handling and treating breeding ewes four to six weeks before mating; pregnancy rates were 54 per cent among ewes where this was carried out, compared with 74 per cent for ewes not treated in this way (P<0.01).

This study aimed to determine values for selected energy metabolites (non-esterified fatty acid [NEFA], β-hydroxybutyrate [BHB], urea or urea:BHB ratio), together with a body condition score, associated with an increased risk of cows developing a reproductive disorder and to investigate temporal relationships between predictors and reproductive outcome. A cohort of 98 cows on one farm was monitored weekly from four weeks before to 10 weeks after calving; 89 cows provided sufficient data to calculate commencement of luteal activity (C-LA). Cows with high NEFA × urea (Nu; product of NEFA and urea) values one and three weeks after calving were twice as likely to develop cystic ovarian disease (risk ratio 2). Cows that developed endometritis had high NEFA values one (P=0.02) or four weeks (P=0.04) before calving, or low urea:BHB ratios two weeks before calving, at calving or three weeks after calving (P=0.024, P=0.031 and P=0.001, respectively). Cows that had delayed C-LA had high NEFA values one week after calving (P=0.05) or low urea:BHB ratios three or four weeks after calving (P=0.004 and P=0.003, respectively).

UDDER shape and the presence of teat-end lesions were examined in dairy cows to determine whether there was any association with somatic cell count (SCC) and bacterial intramammary infection (IMI), and therefore the susceptibility of particular cows to mastitis. A total of 240 Holstein-Friesian

Dry cow therapy (DCT), an infusion of antibiotics into the mammary gland at the end of lactation, is widely used for the control of intra-mammary infections (IMI) in the dairy cow. However, increased public health concerns about the use of antibiotics, has led to the search for alternatives to the routine use of antibiotics during drying off. In the present study the effects of three dry cow treatments, two types of DCT and a teat-sealant, on the development of new IMI and clinical mastitis were investigated in 240 cows belonging to two herds (Herd A and Herd B). In Herd A, 60 cows were given one type of DCT (Cloxacillin) and the other 60 cows were given another type of DCT (Framycetin). In Herd B, 60 cows were given teat-sealant and the other herd were not given any treatment. There were significantly more new IMI at calving in control cattle compared to those given teat-sealants (p<0.001) and there were more cases of clinical cases of mastitis in the control group. The number of clinical cases detected in cows given teat-sealant in Herd B were not significantly different from those detected in cows in Herd A given Cloxacillin or Framycetin.

Evaluation of the effect of changes in the horses’ feet after routine trimming and shoeing on gait at the trot is needed improve routine foot care. Evaluate changes in foot conformation and gait after routine farriery. Correlate alterations in a horse's gait before and after routine hoof trimming and shoe application. Fifteen horses received routine hoof trimming and horseshoe application. Dorsal and lateral photographs of the right and left front feet and inertial gait analysis at the trot were completed before and after trimming and shoeing. Measurements were made of hoof photos using a calibrated system. Gait and hoof measurements before and after farrier intervention were compared. Hoof measurement changes in relation to gait changes before and after farrier intervention were analyzed for significant associations. Mean medial to lateral coronary band length (P = .02), lateral (P = .01) and medial (P = .03) coronary band height, dorsal hoof wall length (P = .0004), heel length (P = .0002), heel overhang length (P < .0001), palmar coronary band height (P = .01), and hoof angle (P = .03) in each foot were significantly different pre- and post- farrier intervention. There was no statistical difference in the total head and pelvis movement before and after farrier intervention. The difference in the pooled mean of heel length before and after intervention was correlated with difference in maximum head movement (P = .03.) Pooled mean differences for dorsal hoof wall length (P = .04), heel length and heel overhang length (P = .006) before and after trimming were correlated with differences in maximum pelvis movement. Pooled mean differences for heel length (P = .005) and hoof angle (P = .04) before and after trimming were correlated with difference in minimum pelvis movement. Change in hoof conformation due to routine hoof trimming and shoeing does not change the gait in non–lame horses; however, some hoof characteristics measurements are correlated with immediate change in stride parameters. Use of hoof measurements may assist farriers and veterinarians in applying routine hoof care. Further studies could help determine what hoof conformation changes may be helpful to treat lame horses.

A total of 501 dairy cows were allocated sequentially to be treated immediately after parturition with either 25 iu oxytocin or 35 mg carbetocin, or to be left untreated. Any abnormal parturition, including assisted calving, the birth of twins or dead calves, retained fetal membranes or hypocalcaemia, was recorded, and the cows were examined between 28 and 42 days after calving for endometritis. Pregnancy was diagnosed from 30 days after insemination. The incidence of endometritis was similar (14 per cent, 16 per cent and 19 per cent) and the median intervals from calving to pregnancy were similar (118, 121 and 119 days) for the cows treated with oxytocin, carbetocin or receiving no treatment, respectively. The incidence of endometritis and the median intervals from calving to pregnancy were also similar between the groups for the cows that had an abnormal parturition.

The accuracy of the Rice pelvimeter for measuring pelvic area of double muscled Belgian Blue (BB) cattle was investigated by comparing measurements in the live animal with these obtained from the same animal after slaughter. Pelvic measurements from 466 BB-cows aged 2-10 years old and of an excellent carcass qualification (S and E in the SEUROP classification) were measured with the pelvimeter approximately 12 h prior to, and by graded ruler within 2 h after, slaughter. The mean difference of measurements between living and dead cattle were -0.2 cm for pelvic width (95% limits of agreement -2.5-2.1 cm), and 1.2 cm for pelvic height (95% limits of agreement -1.8-4.1 cm). The correlation coefficient between all pelvic measurements was between 0.46 and 0.59 (p<0.001). The age of the animals influenced only pelvic height whilst carcass weight influenced all the components of the pelvic area. There was a significant correlation between the pelvimetric measurements of the birth canal in living cattle obtained using a Rice pelvimeter compared to actual measurements obtained from the carcass. The Rice pelvimeter is a suitable tool for assessing accurate pelvic skeletal conformation and to select animals in this breed with a larger birth canal and hence less dystocia problems. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Bovine venereal campylobacteriosis (BVC) is a major cause of economic loss to the cattle industries in different parts of the world. Camplylobacter fetus subsp. venerealis (Cfv), the main causative agent of BVC, is highly adapted to the genital tract of cattle and is transmitted by carrier bulls. However, infertility and abortions can also be caused by the intestinal pathogens C. fetus subsp. fetus (Cff), and C. jenuni, which are not venereally transmitted. Bovine venereal campylobacteriosis, caused by Cfv associated with lowered fertility, embryo mortality and abortion, repeated returns to service, reduced pregnancy rates and extended calving intervals, has the highest prevalence in developing countries where natural breeding in cattle is widely practised. The epidemiology, pathogenesis and diagnosis of the disease have been the subject of previous reviews. The main focus of this review is to highlight the epidemiology of this disease with particular reference to geographical distribution and recent advances in molecular diagnostic techniques. It is hoped that further research interest of scientists will be stimulated with a view to finding lasting solutions to the reproductive problems associated with the disease for better livestock productivity, particularly in developing endemic countries.

Approximately 5 per cent of dairy cows are affected by retained fetal membranes. Retained fetal membranes are an important risk factor for the metritis/endometritis disease complex occurring in early lactation, and costs the UK dairy industry approximately pound16 million annually in lost production. Veterinary clinicians have described the clinical signs, treatment and some associated risk factors of the condition since early Victorian times, and these have not changed over time. Research carried out within the past 20 years suggests that there is an immunological basis for retained fetal membranes. In a normal calving, the maturation of the placenta and its separation from healthy caruncles depends upon incompatibility between maternal and fetal major histocompatibility complex class I expressed on epithelium within the fetomaternal unit. Placental maturation follows stimulation of the maternal immune response and the production of neutrophil-activating factors within the epithelium in the caruncular arcade. This affects the extracellular matrix components within the placentome, breaking down collagen within the chorionic villi and assisting in separation from the caruncle. Factors influencing normal placental maturation include downregulation of antioxidative defence mechanisms against reactive oxygen species, a lower ratio of prostaglandin E(2) to prostaglandin F(2alpha) within the fetomaternal compartments of the placentome, and an elevated steroid hormone receptor status, which reduces the rate of apoptosis occurring in the chorionic epithelium before calving.

Milk fever has been recognised in cattle for about 215 years and its clinical signs have not changed since they were described by Victorian veterinary surgeons in the mid-nineteenth century. It was only 80 years ago that abnormal parathyroid gland function was associated with the pathogenesis of the hypocalcaemia characteristic of the disease, and the current basis for its treatment with intravenous calcium salts was established. Although this treatment is effective, most recent research has focused on preventing the disease through an understanding of the endocrine control of extracellular calcium homeostasis. In the 1970s the synthetic vitamin D analogue 1alpha-hydroxycholecalciferol was developed for intramuscular injection before a cow calved, but variable results encouraged other preventive strategies to be considered, including restricting the dietary intake of calcium, and manipulating the dietary cation-anion balance of cows before they calved. Currently, the role of extracellular calcium receptors in the parathyroid gland is under investigation as a preliminary step to devising more effective treatments and/or preventive methods for milk fever.

Perinatal mortality and stillbirths were investigated in an extensively managed herd of Friesian cows and heifers calving over a 2-year period: 504 cows were calved and 215 heifers. Cows were bred to Friesian and Jersey bulls using natural service. The perinatal fetal mortality rate was 7.5% for cows and 30% for heifers. An experienced stockman managed these calvings and veterinary assistance was required only on nine occasions. All stillborn fetuses were examined post-mortem by the Veterinary Laboratories Agency, Carmarthen and no infectious agent was identified on any occasion. Thyroid hyperplasia was found in two fetuses. In blood samples taken from 10 late pregnant heifers, mean glutathione peroxidase values were 7.9 +/- 1.7 IU/ml Packed Cell Volume (PCV). Tissues from eight fetuses were submitted to the University of Liverpool for histopathological examination; all presented lesions consistent with myocardial degeneration and necrosis of the left ventricle. Following treatment of 205 late pregnant heifers with sodium selenite and vitamin E, the overall perinatal mortality rate in these cattle fell to below 11%.