Recent research has shown that adult learners can rapidly acquire novel words of a foreign language by tracking cross-situational statistics, but learning is substantially reduced when the target words are phonologically similar and contain non-native contrasts. We expand on this research by investigating whether perceptual discrimination training on non-native target contrasts facilitates cross-situational learning of new words (CSWL). Our design combines perceptual training and CSWL to test the transfer of perceptual gains to lexical learning-an approach that integrates methods from L2 speech and statistical learning. In two studies, we tested English-native and Portuguese-native speakers' learning of 24 Portuguese pseudowords via a CSWL task. In Study 1, we examined baseline learning in both language groups without prior training. In Study 2, English-native speakers were assigned to one of three conditions: phonetic training with an AX discrimination task, phonetic training with an oddity discrimination task, or no phonetic training prior to the CSWL task. Results confirmed that adults can learn non-native words from cross-situational statistics, and that phonological overlap between words decreases learning. Perceptual training improved the discrimination of target contrasts, but this did not transfer to statistical learning of words that contain these contrasts. These findings suggest that phonetic training alone may not be sufficient for vocabulary acquisition, suggesting the need for instructional approaches that integrate phonetic training with more explicit teaching methods or meaning-based practice.

Abstract The process of implicit learning, essentially the ability to acquire unconscious knowledge, is an elementary and ubiquitous process of human cognition. The field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) has a long‐standing interest in implicit and explicit learning. To a large degree, this interest was sparked by Stephen Krashen's proposals and the ensuing debates on the implicit–explicit interface. In this entry, we will first define the term implicit learning and briefly describe characteristics of implicit knowledge. We will then discuss (lack of) awareness as a criterion of implicitness and review several studies that focused on the incidental acquisition of implicit knowledge in adulthood. Following the tradition in cognitive psychology, we will focus on (un)awareness of the learning product rather than (un)awareness of the learning process. The entry concludes with suggestions for future research.

This study investigates whether adult learners can simultaneously acquire the sounds, words, and grammar of a novel language through cross-situational statistical learning (CSL). English-speaking participants were exposed to an artificial language with unfamiliar phonology and varying morphological salience. Results showed measurable acquisition of nouns and verbs, but limited learning of adjectives and case markers. Importantly, only participants in the high-salience condition showed sensitivity to morphosyntactic violations, suggesting that perceptual salience enhances awareness of grammatical structure. A word-picture matching task revealed that learners encoded phonolexical forms imprecisely: while clearly deviant items were rejected, minimally different lures were often accepted. Finally, individual differences in phonolexical precision were only weakly associated with phonetic discrimination ability. These findings demonstrate the power and limits of CSL in second-language learning and highlight the importance of perceptual cues for acquiring complex L2 structure.

Recent evidence from cross-situational learning (CSL) studies have shown that adult learners can acquire words and grammar simultaneously when sentences of the novel language co-occur with dynamic scenes to which they refer. Syntactic bootstrapping accounts suggest that grammatical knowledge may help scaffold vocabulary acquisition by constraining possible meanings, thus, for children, words and grammar may be acquired at different rates. Twenty children (ages 8 to 9) were exposed in a CSSL study to an artificial language comprising nouns, verbs, and case markers occurring within a verb-final grammatical structure. Children acquired syntax (i.e., word order) effectively, but we found no evidence of vocabulary learning, whereas previous adult studies showed learning of both from similar input. Grammatical information may thus be available early for children, to help constrain and support later vocabulary learning. We propose that gradual maturation of declarative memory systems may result in more effective vocabulary learning in adults.

Individual differences in cognitive abilities and explicit instruction can affect language learning. Understanding how individual differences and instruction interact, however, requires us to determine the points in the language learning process that are open to influence. One hundred and eleven adults were exposed to an artificial language comprising transitive sentences occurring with action scenes and were either instructed or not in the language structure. Learning proceeded by determining the cross-situational correspondences between words and scene features. We found that declarative memory ability related strongly and positively but procedural memory related weakly and negatively to overall immediate learning. Rule-search instruction also positively influenced short-term learning, but not of the structure that was explicitly highlighted, and this was most pronounced in those with high declarative memory. The results highlight which features of language learning are accessible to information about language structure, and how that is affected by the learners’ cognitive abilities, with practical implications for personalised design of language learning programmes.

IntroductionAdult learners often struggle to perceive and acquire unfamiliar speech sounds in a second language, especially at the initial stages of learning. Traditional perceptual training methods, such as discrimination tasks, tend to be less effective with beginners, as they rely on low-level acoustic judgments and lack meaningful context. This study investigates whether training with cross-situational word learning (CSWL), a meaning-based learning paradigm, can improve the perceptual discrimination of non-native vowel contrasts.MethodsThirty-seven native speakers of Hungarian were trained on eight European Portuguese pseudowords through a single CSWL session involving alternating passive and active learning blocks, feedback, and exposure to multiple native voices. Participants completed identification and discrimination tasks before and after training. Non-native word learning and vowel discrimination were measured before and after training, by means of identification and discrimination tasks, respectively.ResultsLearners achieved above-chance word identification, indicating successful lexical learning. However, improvement in vowel discrimination was contrast-specific: participants improved in three of six contrasts, while performance remained low for the most difficult contrast. Learners also showed lower identification accuracy for pseudowords containing this contrast, and individual discrimination ability was associated with word learning success.DiscussionThese findings highlight that while meaning-based training through CSWL can support early lexical and phonological learning, perceptual challenges remain for difficult contrasts. The study advances our understanding of how word learning and sound perception interact during second language acquisition and demonstrates the potential of lexically grounded approaches for perceptual training at the onset of learning.

Research on second language (L2) speech learning suggests that incidental perception training can lead to the establishment of non-native phonological categories. The present study contributes to this line of enquiry by investigating how this training is mediated by individual differences in working memory capacity and domain-general auditory processing abilities. In our study, 130 native British English speakers without prior knowledge of Portuguese were randomly assigned to trained or untrained conditions. All participants completed a visual digit span task and an auditory processing test battery. We observed improvements from pretest to post-test in production only, but since both groups improved, these gains cannot be attributed to the incidental perception training. The analysis of the ID measures further confirms the important role played by auditory processing abilities in L2 speech learning. However, more research is needed to better understand the role of incidental perception training and the mediating role of cognitive aptitudes.

Non-native languages tend to be acquired through a combination of explicit and implicit learning, where implicit learning requires coordination of language information with referents in the environment. In this study, we examined how learners use both language input and environmental cues to acquire vocabulary and morphology in a novel language and how their language background influences this process. We trained 105 adults with native languages (L1s) varying in morphological richness (English, German, Mandarin) on an artificial language comprising nouns and verbs with morphological features (number, tense, and subject-verb [SV] agreement) appearing alongside referential visual scenes. Participants were able to learn both word stems and morphological features from cross-situational statistical correspondences between language and the environment, without any instruction. German-speakers learned SV agreement worse than other morphological features, which were acquired equally effectively by English or Mandarin speakers, indicating the subtle and varied influence of L1 morphological richness on implicit non-native language learning.

This commentary critically engages with Hulstijn’s revised Basic Language Cognition (BLC) Theory, which aims to enhance explanatory power and falsifiability regarding individual differences (IDs) in language proficiency across native and non-native speakers. While commending BLC Theory’s emphasis on separating oral and written language cognition, we raise two key concerns. First, we question the theory’s exclusive alignment with usage-based approaches, arguing that its core constructs are, in principle, compatible with multiple meta-theoretical frameworks, including generative ones. As such, BLC Theory should remain neutral to maximize its cross-paradigmatic utility. Second, we address the theory’s treatment of heritage speaker bilinguals (HSs), particularly the implication that they may not typically acquire BLC. We contend that this position overlooks robust empirical evidence demonstrating that HSs develop systematic, rule-governed grammars influenced by their individual input and usage conditions. Moreover, we highlight how IDs among HSs can provide a valuable testing ground for BLC Theory, particularly regarding the role of input and literacy. We conclude that embracing theory neutrality and integrating diverse speaker data—especially from heritage bilinguals—can enhance BLC Theory’s generalizability, empirical relevance, and theoretical utility across language acquisition research.

In this study, we investigated the development of phraseological knowledge in Portuguese second language learners, focusing on noun–adjective combinations through the lenses of phrasal frequency, association strength, and accuracy. We analysed essays from 693 learners across five proficiency levels, representing 18 typologically diverse L1s. Learners’ use of noun–adjective combinations was examined using four association measures—phrase frequency, mutual information, log dice, and ΔP—as well as the accuracy of use. Findings reveal that phraseological development is not linear: advanced learners produced less frequent and less strongly-associated combinations, suggesting a shift toward more varied or creative expressions. L1 word order typology did not influence phrase frequency or association strength, but learners from noun–adjective dominant L1s produced collocations more accurately, indicating a dissociation between accuracy and idiomaticity. Accuracy followed a U-shaped developmental trajectory. Overall, the results highlight the complex interplay of learner- and input-related variables in L2 phraseological development. Keywords: collocations, phraseological development, association measures, L2 proficiency, learner corpus research, word-order typology

Language-switching sometimes causes delayed responses, especially when switching from the later-acquired languages (here, L2) to the dominant native language (L1). It is well-established that language proficiency plays a role in production, but what about language context (i.e., the ratio of L1 and L2)? We investigated language context within two language production processes: “top-down” (naming pictures) and “bottom-up” (reading words aloud). We suggest that switch cost asymmetry was not only affected by language context, but also by production modality. In picture naming, the degree of inhibition relies largely on the activation level of the predominant language in the language context, whereby affects the asymmetry. However, the asymmetry disappears when language processing only requires reading aloud words with orthographically unique and constrained to one language. We provide evidence with dynamics of inhibition in different language contexts, suggesting that future study should continue to explore the flexibility of production processes in bilingual speakers.

IntroductionRecent research on word learning has found that adults can rapidly learn novel words by tracking cross-situational statistics, but learning is greatly influenced by the phonological properties of the words and by the native language of the speakers. Mandarin-native speakers could easily pick up novel words with Mandarin tones after a short exposure, but English-native speakers had specific difficulty with the tonal components. It is, however, unclear how much experience with Mandarin is needed to successfully use the tonal cue in word learning. In this study, we explored this question by focusing on the heritage language population, who typically are exposed to the target language at an early age but then develop and switch to another majority language. Specifically, we investigated whether heritage Mandarin speakers residing in an English-speaking region and speaking English as a dominant language would be able to learn novel Mandarin tonal words from statistical tracking. It helps us understand whether early exposure to the target feature is sufficient to promote the use of that feature in word learning later in life.MethodsWe trained 30 heritage Mandarin speakers with Mandarin pseudowords via a cross-situational statistical word learning task (CSWL).Results and discussionHeritage Mandarin speakers were able to learn the pseudowords across multiple situations, but similar-sounding words (i.e., minimal pairs) were more difficult to identify, and words that contrast only in lexical tones (i.e., Mandarin lexical tone) were distinguished at chance level throughout learning. We also collected information about the participants’ heritage language (HL) experience and usage. We did not observe a relationship between HL experience/usage and performance in tonal word learning, suggesting that HL exposure does not necessarily lead to an advantage in learning the target language.

Adults often encounter difficulty perceiving and processing sounds of a second language (L2). In order to acquire word-meaning mappings, learners need to determine what the language-relevant phonological contrasts are in the language. In this study, we examined the influence of phonology on non-native word learning, determining whether the language-relevant phonological contrasts could be acquired by abstracting over multiple experiences, and whether awareness of these contrasts could be related to learning. We trained English- and Mandarin-native speakers with pseudowords via a cross-situational statistical learning task (CSL). Learners were able to acquire the phonological contrasts across multiple situations, but similar-sounding words (i.e., minimal pairs) were harder to acquire, and words that contrast in a non-native suprasegmental feature (i.e., Mandarin lexical tone) were even harder for English-speakers, even with extended exposure. Furthermore, awareness of the non-native phonology was not found to relate to learning.

Collocations are understood to be integral building blocks of language processing, alongside individual words, but thus far evidence for the psychological reality of collocations has tended to be confined to English. In contrast to English, Turkish is an agglutinating language, utilizing productive morphology to convey complex meanings using a single word. Given this, we expected Turkish speakers to be less sensitive to phrasal frequencies than English speakers. In Study 1, we conducted a corpus analysis of translation-equivalent adjective-noun collocations (e.g., front door) and found differences between the two languages in frequency counts. In Study 2, we conducted a reaction time experiment to determine the sensitivity of native speakers of English and Turkish to the frequency of adjectives, nouns, and whole collocations. Turkish speakers were less sensitive to whole-phrase frequencies, as predicted, indicating that collocations are processed less holistically in Turkish than English. Both groups demonstrated that processing collocations involves combining information about individual words and phrases. Taken together, we show that speakers are sensitive to frequency information at multiple grain sizes that are attuned to the typology of different languages. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Migrant students tend to underperform in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) subjects and are less likely to pursue higher education in STEM when compared with their nonmigrant peers. Given the substantial increase in migration, this disparity has been a central concern in science education in many European countries. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of an innovative science outreach program that brings together migrant students and STEM professionals with the same linguistic and cultural backgrounds. The program consists of one-off workshops that follow an inquiry-based approach and include hands-on activities and science communication in the students' heritage language. Using surveys with adapted scales and open-ended questions, we applied a randomized block design with waitlist control groups and repeated measures. Eighty-three Portuguese-speaking migrant students aged 6-17 years participated in the workshops in Germany and the United Kingdom. Results indicate that both the students and STEM professionals evaluated the program positively and that students who participated in the workshops tended to demonstrate an increase in their attainment value for science and an increase in their self-concept of ability for the heritage language 4 weeks after the intervention when compared with students in the control condition. These effects were particularly pronounced for students with low prior motivation to study science or speak the heritage language. Our results thus show that it is possible to foster migrant students' attainment value for science and increase their self-concept of ability regarding the heritage language through a brief science outreach intervention.

Whereas statistical learning, the tracking of regularities in the environment, has been found to be critical in language acquisition, limited research has investigated how this process works for the older population. In the present study, we addressed this gap by comparing older and younger adults’ performance in a cross-situational word learning paradigm, where participants learned novel word-referent mappings via statistical tracking of co-occurrences across multiple trials. Moreover, we tested whether this learning process was affected by previous experience with multiple languages (i.e., the bilingualism effect). We found that both age groups successfully learned non-native words after a short exposure, confirming that statistical learning ability is preserved in late adulthood. The two groups, however, differed in their learning trajectories and the younger group outperformed the older group during the later stages of learning. Previous language experience did not predict learning outcomes. Our findings have implications for language education in the older population, suggesting that implicit exposure is powerful for older adults learning a foreign language.

Vocabulary can be learned by tracking cross-situational statistics between words and aspects of the environment. Nouns and verbs – with observable referents in the environment – can be acquired rapidly, but whether more abstract morphological features can also be acquired cross-situationally, and whether such learning is affected by prior language experience, remain open questions. One hundred and seventeen adults with native languages varying in morphological richness (Chinese, English, German) were exposed to an artificial language comprising intransitive sentences with morphology indicating number, tense, and subject-verb agreement. For each sentence, two scenes appeared on a screen, and participants selected which matched the sentence. Participants learned both vocabulary and morphology from cross-situational statistics, but we found no evidence for an effect of language background. Cross-situational learning is a sufficiently powerful mechanism to drive acquisition of morphological features as well as vocabulary, and is robust to differences in morphological expression from speakers’ native languages.