Large herbivores foster direct and indirect cascading effects on ecosystems, being considered key elements for ecological functioning and restoration. Empirical knowledge supporting restoration programs involving large herbivores is still very limited in Mediterranean ecosystems. For instance, few studies have explored how small mammals’ body condition vary across different levels of herbivore pressure. Small mammals are keystone species in the dynamics of Mediterranean habitats due to their role as seed dispersers and prey. In this study, we performed a seasonal and fine-scale experiment in a fenced Mediterranean area in north-eastern Portugal, to assess the population and individual response of small mammals (one rodent, wood mouse Apodemus sylvaticus and one insectivorous, greater white-toothed shrew Crocidura russula) to the effects of herbivores pressure, seasonality, landscape structure, and sex-related differences. Our results showed that the wood mouse was more abundant in the spring, while the shrew was particularly abundant in open areas with higher herbivory pressure, which may be related to a greater abundance of dung-associated arthropods. Body condition of both species improved in spring, while the presence of rocky outcrops also promoted a positive effect on wood mouse body condition. These structures can contribute to thermoregulation and offer refuge from disturbances caused by large herbivores. This study suggests that the coexistence of small mammals and large herbivores is mediated by several factors governed by the complexity of Mediterranean habitats.

The wild boar population in Europe has been growing in recent decades prior to the arrival of African swine fever (ASF), which has now spread across much of eastern Europe. We obtained two independent sources of wild boar data: occurrence sightings and hunting harvest. We combined these with environmental predictors and used them in two species distribution modelling approaches, a Maxent approach for occurrence data and a GLMM for the hunting harvest, to produce output at the European level. The output of these models was then combined with robust and comparable density estimates from 77 sites across Europe to produce a density estimate and total population size for each country prior to documenting ASF in that country (from 2007 for Georgia to 2022 for most EU countries that are still free from disease). The output indicates a total population of wild boar in Europe between 13.5 and 19.6 million individuals prior to the hunting season each year in the core wild boar range. Population estimates of wild boar in Europe based on occurrence sightings and hunting harvest are highly similar yet vary substantially among countries. Although the output may need to be adjusted where local factors affect the population (e.g., areas of range spread) the output can be used for assessing risk of disease spread and effect of management. We propose that the availability of density estimates from the European Observatory of Wildlife will permit robust population estimates for other species of interest since the methodology is consistent between species and habitats.

Free-roaming cats and dogs represent a growing challenge for biodiversity conservation, animal welfare, and public health. Despite increasing concern about their ecological and societal impacts, robust national-scale estimates of their populations remain scarce in many countries. This study provides the first estimation of free-roaming cat and dog populations in urbanized areas of mainland Portugal and examines the environmental, demographic, and socioeconomic drivers associated with their abundance. Counts of free-roaming animals were conducted through direct observation across 78 spatially stratified sampling grids (1 km² each) distributed across thirteen districts. Observations were integrated with environmental and socioeconomic covariates using generalized linear models to identify predictors of abundance and generate density predictions for urbanized landscapes with human influence. A total of 1,792 free-roaming animals were recorded during field surveys, including 1,436 cats and 356 dogs. Model-based predictions estimated 830,541 free-roaming cats (95

Vehicle collisions involving free-roaming animals pose significant traffic safety and animal welfare concerns worldwide. While wildlife-vehicle collisions have been studied thoroughly, less attention has been given to collisions involving dogs and cats. Collisions present several risks for drivers and are often fatal for the animals involved. We analyzed spatial and temporal patterns of dog and cat vehicle collisions reported by the Portuguese authorities from 2019 to 2022, identifying the factors that increase or decrease the probability of collision occurrence on national scale. Temporal analyses showed that dog and cat vehicle collisions were more concentrated in the late afternoon and at night, with a substantial increase in cat collisions in 2020. Spatially, most collisions were concentrated along the coast, where human population density is highest. Road conditions and landscape characteristics were key predictors of vehicle collision risk for both species, with human population density also influencing cat collisions. Roads with higher speed limits, road sinuosity and denser road networks increased collision probability, while traffic signs, crossings and speed cameras were associated with fewer collisions. Additionally, collisions were more frequent in areas with greater artificial and agricultural land cover than in forested, pastured or shrubland regions. Our findings highlight the need for road safety improvements, such as increased traffic signs, particularly in urban and agricultural areas. These strategies, together with responsible pet ownership and free-roaming animal management policies, are essential to reducing collisions and mitigating their impacts on both human and animal safety.

The expansion of Eucalyptus plantations has raised concerns about their effects on wildlife, yet the influence of stand-level management on roe deer remains poorly understood. We investigated how plantation management shapes roe deer responses in central Portugal using 375 camera-trap deployments from 2019 and 2020 and four session-specific single-season occupancy models that separated detection probability from site-use probability. Across sessions, stand size was retained mainly in the detection component, indicating that variation in camera-trap sampling coverage influenced detectability more consistently than ecological site use. Support for site-use effects varied among periods, but the strongest result emerged in the 2020 dry season, when site use was lower in reforestation stands than in afforestation stands and temporal responses differed among production regimens. The 2020 wet season also supported a positive effect of time since intervention on site use after accounting for broad spatial structure. By contrast, the 2019 wet season informed detection only, whereas the 2019 dry season showed non-linear relationships weakened by overdispersion and QAICc sensitivity. Overall, our findings indicate that Eucalyptus plantations should not be treated as ecologically uniform systems, because roe deer responses depend on when and how stands are managed, with reforestation representing the most disruptive phase.

Ongoing global environmental changes demand cost-effective strategies to restore ecosystem functioning. Within this context, the reintroduction of large mammalian herbivores has emerged as a promising approach to recover ecological processes and foster self-sustaining, biodiverse ecosystems. However, the impacts of such initiatives remain poorly understood, particularly regarding their effects on soil functions and ecological processes. We tested whether large herbivore densities (wild horses (Garrano breed) and cattle (Maronesa breed, an ancient lineage close to aurochs) modulates soil multifunctionality (the simultaneous provision of multiple ecosystem functions) across habitats (grasslands, shrublands, and forests) and seasons (fall and spring) in a Mediterranean landscape. Using composite multivariate indices describing soil functions related to biogeochemical cycles (i.e., enzymatic activities) and physicochemical properties (pH, conductivity, organic matter, and nutrient loads), we found that soil enzymatic activities varied seasonally, being higher in spring, and interacted with habitat and herbivore pressure gradients. Habitat and herbivore pressure explained the variation in soil multifunctionality during spring, while in fall it was mainly driven by herbivore pressure. Enzymatic stoichiometry, particularly C:P ratios, strongly predicted soil fertility and multifunctionality, showing positive relationships in forest habitats and under herbivore pressure. A mechanistic approach confirmed that herbivore impacts on soil functioning operated primarily through changes in soil properties and nutrient cycling rather than direct effects. Mediterranean landscapes are rapidly changing, and our results highlight herbivore management as a key tool to sustain soil ecological processes under the rewilding framework. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest. Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, CEECIND/01428/2018,, 2021.00690.CEECIND/CP1659/CT0029), 2021.05387.BD, PD/BD/150645/2020, 2023.00109.RESTART, UID/50017/2025 and LA/P/0094/2020 National Science Foundation, DEB# 2120677)

Large herbivores drive ecosystem functions and processes through their direct or indirect impact on different habitats and wildlife communities. Some studies have assessed the impact of large herbivores on the small mammal diversity and abundance, but fewer have assessed how rewilding with large herbivores impact seed dispersal by rodents. Here, we assessed the impact of “Maronesa” cows, a cattle breed closely related to the extinct aurochs (Bos primigenius), on acorn removal and dispersal dynamics in a typical Mediterranean habitat. This study was conducted in the Faia Brava Reserve located in the Greater Côa Valley (North-Eastern Portugal) as part of the Rewilding Europe program, where it was possible to distinguish three areas: 1) current “Maronesa” herbivory (since 2012), 2) historical herbivory (2012–2022), and 3) control area (i.e., without any records of large herbivores). Our results showed that acorn removal rates were significantly higher in areas with large ungulate herbivory (historical and current) than in the control area. Acorn removal in historical herbivory was caused only by scatter-hoarding rodents, whereas in current herbivory it was mainly caused by large herbivores that act as acorn predators. Interestingly, dispersal distances were greater in the historical herbivory compared to the current herbivory. Microsites of seed deposition also varied with large herbivore rewilding, as rodents dispersed the seeds to open microsites when large herbivores were present, whereas without herbivory, seeds were mostly deposited and predated under plant cover. These findings highlight the potential consequences of large herbivore rewilding on the regeneration of oak-dominated Mediterranean ecosystems through cascading effects on the seed dispersal process.

Identifying the drivers and ecological mechanisms that shape species occupancy patterns at large scales is decisive in understanding how species respond to environmental changes. In this study, we compiled camera trapping data from different scientific projects and monitoring programs to conduct the first assessment of the relevant ecological drivers of red fox (Vulpes vulpes) occupancy patterns at the national level in Portugal. Here, using single-species/single-season occupancy models, we targeted Portugal divided into two regions with different environmental contexts - north and south of the Tagus River. Our results show that the red fox occupancy drivers change depending on the environmental context. In the northern region (more mountainous and densely forested), occupancy patterns were shaped mostly by direct human-associated disturbance, positively associated with dogs’ relative abundance index. On the other hand, in the southern region (mainly plain areas dominated by agroforestry systems), the variation in red fox occupancy patterns was best explained by the habitat characteristics, with foxes showing a higher probability of occupying areas with greater habitat diversity. Considering these results, we conclude that the red fox’s generalist character is highlighted by its capacity to adopt different occupancy strategies depending on the environmental context: the use of more humanized areas, along with free-ranging dogs, in the Northern region, and the use of areas with more diversified resources in the Southern region. Therefore, our study reinforces the red fox’s highly adaptive character, adding crucial information to tailor red fox management and conservation actions to Portugal’s different regional environmental contexts.

Wild ungulate-vehicle collisions (UVC) in Europe have dramatically increased, creating serious conservation, economic and health problems. To examine which temporal and environmental features promote UVC involving the three most abundant and widely distributed wild ungulate species in Portugal (wild boar, red deer and roe deer), we used Generalized Linear Models, using a database of 3,374 UVC (2019–2022). We evaluated the influence of hour, day, month, hunting season, breeding season, lunar phase, meteorological conditions and land cover on the patterns of the wild ungulate-vehicle collisions. Temporally and spatially, UVC were not randomly distributed and the distribution was species-specific. Different factors explained the vehicle collisions for different species, being precipitation, time after dusk, forest and urban area around the collisions the drivers common for all the species. Hunting season also explained the wild boar collisions and both hunting and breeding season explained both wild boar and roe deer vehicle-collisions. Our results may be considered an important step towards the development of nationwide and space-time collision risk maps to be incorporated on navigation and mapping services. The information provided in this study emphasis the need for the optimization of ongoing mitigation measures and the need to focus them on periods of elevated collision risk, namely during twilight periods.

The brown bear (Ursus arctos) populations are expanding in the Iberian Peninsula, particularly in the Cantabrian Mountains. This ongoing expansion and the species' return to Portugal could be jeopardized by a lack of sustainable coexistence strategies. To shed light on how experiences with bears have shaped human perceptions and attitudes toward this species, we distributed online questionnaires (n = 441) across Portugal and Spain. In addition, we evaluated differences in attitudes and perceptions among regions with varying levels of exposure to bears: those with (BAS) or without (NBAS) bear presence in Spain and those with (BAP) or without (NBAP) the potential to sustain bears in Portugal. Despite observing overall positive attitudes toward bears, Spanish respondents showed stronger attachment and receptiveness toward the species. Respondents from BAS, having more interactions with wild bears, were also more favourable toward sharing territory with them. Conversely, Portuguese respondents showed more neutral attitudes toward bear presence, as well as higher perception of risk and lower perception of benefit than previously reported. Our findings highlight the importance of understanding the social landscape in bears' expansion range. As human-bear interactions increase, this knowledge is key to adopt proactive and targeted socio-ecological measures to address local community's concerns.

Wild boar (Sus scrofa), a widely distributed and expanding large mammal, is considered locally overabundant in Europe. Since assessing the overabundance of wildlife is challenging, we hypothesised that hair cortisol concentration (HCC), an often-used indicator of allostatic load, could be a biomarker of overabundance. This study aimed to characterise HCC in hunted female wild boars (n = 133) in diverse environmental and management contexts across Portugal and assess its relation with: 1) wild ungulate densities, 2) trophic resources, 3) threats and refuges, 4) edaphoclimatic variables, and 5) intrinsic factors. HCC was measured using a commercial competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and the results were analysed using generalised linear mixed models. The mean HCC of female wild boar was 6.22 +/- 4.1 pg/mg guard hair. Significant positive determinants of HCC included the: 1) density of sympatric cervids (quadratic); 2) Normalised Difference Vegetation Index; 3) hunting pressure; 4) evapotranspiration; and 5) juveniles and sub-adults. This study highlights the influence of ecological and anthropogenic determinants on the allostatic load of female wild boars. Hair cortisol concentration could be a biomarker of overabundance integrating the effects of inter-specific competition with cervids and the intensity of hunting pressure. Further research is needed to clarify the factors driving the annual variability of HCC in female wild boar in overabundance contexts.

ABSTRACT The Iberian Peninsula is witnessing ever‐faster environmental changes, and new challenges for wild ungulates are continuously emerging as they become more abundant and widespread. We conducted a systematic review to analyse the knowledge on wild ungulates inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula. We used Web of Science and Scopus search engines, complemented by searches in nonindexed journals, to examine peer‐reviewed articles published between January 1990 and July 2023. The annual average growth rate in the number of publications was 17%. Most studies focussed on diseases and pathogens (36%), physiology, endocrinology and reproduction (19%), and behaviour, population and community ecology (17%). Red deer and wild boar are the most targeted species in scientific literature, followed by the Iberian wild goat, roe deer, fallow deer, Southern chamois, mouflon and aoudad. We identify key knowledge gaps that deserve further attention such as the ecological and social impacts of (re)introductions, the effects of increasing ungulate densities on ecosystem integrity and the impact of different hunting and management techniques (some unique to the Iberian Peninsula) on population dynamics. We also highlight the need to stimulate Iberian collaboration and extend the discussion to a wider range of stakeholders to integrate different perspectives on the research agenda for Iberian wild ungulates.

Herbivores play a crucial role in ecosystem functioning, modulating resources availability by altering the physical state of biotic and/or abiotic components. The reintroduction or restocking of medium and/or large herbivores in areas from which they have disappeared is increasingly seen as a key tool to restore ecosystem processes. Often referred to as trophic rewilding, these initiatives aim to reverse biodiversity loss, restore ecosystem structure and re-establish trophic interactions. However, trophic rewilding remains a controversial concept due to concerns about its ecological sustainability, potential unintended effects, and variable social acceptance. While limited evidence exists to support its effectiveness at local scales, further empirical research is needed to address these uncertainties. This study employs an integrative review of existing frameworks and case studies to propose a comprehensive approach for monitoring trophic rewilding projects. Indicators were grouped into three categories —population trends, rewilding progress, and rewilding impacts—balancing ecological and socio-economic dimensions. These indicators are designed to ensure transparency, repeatability, and adaptability, enabling the evaluation of ecosystem changes over time relative to a pre-intervention reference status. Additionally, they incorporate measures of local community perception and attitudes, providing essential insights into social acceptance. The implementation of a robust monitoring program, as outlined here, could mitigate controversies surrounding trophic rewilding by generating critical data to assess long-term effectiveness and addressing potential disputes. This approach offers a practical path toward fostering better understanding and acceptance of trophic rewilding, while supporting adaptive management and the restoration of ecosystem integrity.

Free-roaming cats and dogs impact biodiversity, public health, and the welfare of other animals. Attitudes towards free-roaming animals can influence their population dynamics and management success. We conducted an online survey to evaluate social perceptions and attitudes towards free-roaming animals among self-selected Portuguese residents aged 18 or older with internet access. The survey focused on responsible ownership, perceptions and attitudes, and management practices, and allowed the collection and analysis of 1083 responses (607 for dogs and 476 for cats). Our results identified needs for improvement in pet ownership: increasing pet cat identification, reducing unsupervised outdoor access, and promoting pet dog sterilization. In terms of management strategies, we found strong support for trap–neuter–release, sheltering, sanctions on abandonment, and educational campaigns. We also found limited support for lethal control methods and fear of culling and long-term caging as barriers to reporting free-roaming animals. While our findings are based on a self-selected online sample, they establish a foundation for future research while also offering valuable guidance for policymakers and stakeholders.

The human dimension of wildlife is increasingly addressed in socioecological studies on the growth of some wildlife populations in Europe, which frequently leads to conflicts, particularly when wild populations inhabit or reach humanized landscapes. In Europe, ungulates have been increasing in number and distribution, especially the wild boar (Sus scrofa). This has been a cause of concern, given the increase in traffic accidents, diseases, and crop damage caused by the wild boar. These impacts could shape people’s perception regarding this species, but sociocultural factors can influence a favorable perception. This study examines people’s perception of the wild boar in Portugal, collecting responses from 1532 individuals, including farmers, hunters, and the general public. Three indexes were created to analyze perception: interest in wildlife, perception of benefits, and perception of damage associated with wild boar. Respondents had, in general, a positive perception of the wild boar. Farmers were more aware of wild boar increasing trends and had a higher damage perception and a lower perception of species benefits. This was expected, considering the increasing damages caused by wild boar to crops. Hunters showed an intermediate perception between the farmers and the general public that mainly highlighted the benefits. This study is valuable in providing data to orientate awareness-raising actions, as well as management strategies to tackle wild boar densities, such as hunting coupled with other methods. It is of the utmost importance the application of compensatory schemes, through the government, as an end-of-line measure. Future research should focus on adaptive management involving multidisciplinary teams.

Blastocystis is a ubiquitous intestinal protist in humans and animals worldwide. The traditional livestock free-roaming raising system in rural communities increases the risk of infection with contact with a wider range of pathogens transmitted via the faecal-oral route associated with that wildlife-livestock-human interface. However, no studies have been conducted to determine the occurrence and subtype distribution of Blastocystis in livestock in Portugal. Here, we collected 180 faecal samples from herbivore livestock (cattle, goats, horses, and sheep) in different regions of the country to investigate Blastocystis prevalence and subtype diversity using PCR and next-generation amplicon sequencing. Blastocystis was present in 40.6% (73/180; 95% CI: 33.31-48.11) of the samples (goats, 81.0%; sheep, 60.9%; cattle, 32.2%). None of the horse samples were Blastocystis-positive. Eighteen subtypes were detected (ST1-ST3, ST5-ST7, ST10, ST13, ST14, ST21, ST23-ST26, ST30, ST42-ST44). Mixed infections were detected in 97.3% of the Blastocystis-positive samples. Potentially zoonotic subtypes were identified in 75.0%, 96.4%, and 100% of the Blastocystis-positive specimens collected from cattle, sheep, and goats, respectively. These results demonstrate that cattle, sheep, and goats harbour a high diversity of Blastocystis subtypes in the study regions. Importantly, our data provide novel molecular evidence strongly suggesting that some Blastocystis STs/ST subgroups may have differential host specificity.

Context Large carnivores have faced severe extinction pressures throughout Europe during the last centuries, where human-induced disturbances reached unprecedented levels. In the late twentieth century, the Cantabrian brown bear population was on the verge of extinction, due to poaching. Yet, the end of the last century was a turning point for this population. Presence data on the western Cantabrian subpopulation was collected since the beginning of the century and insights provided by this long-term monitoring may be useful for brown bear conservation. Objectives Here, we aim to: (i) identify the landscape features relevant to bears' recovery; and (ii) understand if and how the landscape use patterns by bears changed over time. Methods We tested the influence of landscape structure (i.e., composition and configuration) on bear occurrence patterns using MAXENT in three periods representative of land cover change. Results Despite variation across the 19-year monitoring period, brown bears were more often detected near broad-leaf forests and bare rock areas and at lower to intermediate altitudes, but avoided arable lands, permanent crops, and burnt areas. Human population density or distance to roads-often used for modelling habitat suitability for Cantabrian brown bears-were not identified as relevant variables for this brown bear subpopulation. Artificial areas were identified as relevant landscape features, but not as disturbance. Conclusions These findings reinforce the importance of preserving bears' native habitats and provide new insights, namely on the use of humanized landscapes.

Trophic rewilding is considered a conservation measure that aims to restore the trophic interactions. In north‐central Portugal, the Iberian wolf ( Canis lupus signatus ) is endangered mainly due to human persecution, triggered by wolf depredation on livestock. Several initiatives have occurred in this area to increase wolf wild prey availability by reintroducing/reinforcing roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus ) populations. However, the success of trophic rewilding initiatives relies on up‐to‐date scientific evidence, considering both ecological and social settings. Favorability models can be used to infer the most suitable habitats for roe deer settlement and expansion by analyzing the environmental variables known to influence species ecology and behavior. In this study, we infer how the prey habitat favorability can contribute to plan prey populations reinforcement processes as a tool for trophic chain restoration. Using 330 camera traps, we monitored the roe deer population over 8,940 km 2 in north‐central Portugal. Field data were used to evaluate the environmental determinants of roe deer presence. By using the favorability function, we created a spatially explicit gradient of habitat favorability that allowed us to define key areas for the application of management measures. The selected sites are strategically positioned to promote the natural expansion of established roe deer populations and overlap the current distribution of Iberian wolf. These results are an important step toward the restoration of the trophic chain and to reduce human–wolf conflicts. Our proposal paves the way for future rewilding initiatives, especially where prey species are central to the survival of top predators.

AbstractThe ongoing increase in wild boar populations across Europe has fostered human–wildlife conflicts, including the transmission of emerging pathogens with zoonotic importance. Blastocystis is a ubiquitous, faecal-oral transmitted protist that can cause gastrointestinal illnesses and is observed in humans and animals worldwide. The role of wildlife in the epidemiology of Blastocystis is insufficiently understood. Thus, we investigated the occurrence and subtype diversity of Blastocystis in free-ranging wild boars from the Iberian Peninsula using conventional PCR and next-generation amplicon sequencing of a fragment of the ssu RNA gene. A total of 459 wild boar faecal samples were collected across Spain (n = 360) and Portugal (n = 99) between 2014 and 2021. Blastocystis was present in 15.3% (70/459; 95% CI 12.1–18.9) of the wild boars analysed, and its occurrence was significantly higher in Portugal (34.3%, 34/99; 95% CI 25.1–44.6) than in Spain (10.0%, 36/360; 95% CI 7.1–13.6). Seven Blastocystis subtypes (ST5, ST10b, ST13–ST15, ST24b, and ST43) were detected among the surveyed wild boar populations, with greater variability detected in Portuguese samples. ST5 was identified in all the Blastocystis-positive animals, whereas 14.3% of them harboured ST mixed colonisations. Our results demonstrate that Blastocystis ST5 is particularly adapted to infect wild boars. The additional identification of zoonotic STs reinforces the role of wild boars as spreaders of zoonotic infections with public health significance.

INTRODUCTION:Intestinal microeukaryote parasites are major contributors to the burden of diarrhoea in humans and domestic animals, but their epidemiology in wildlife is not fully understood. We investigated the frequency, genetic diversity and zoonotic potential of protists of animal and public health significance in free-ranging grey wolf (Canis lupus) populations in south-western Europe. METHODS:Individually formed faecal samples collected from necropsied wolves or scat trails in Italy (n = 47), Portugal (n = 43) and Spain (n = 225) during the period 2011-2023 were retrospectively analysed using molecular (PCR and Sanger sequencing) methods. Complementary epidemiological data were gathered when available. RESULTS:Giardia duodenalis was the most frequent microeukaryote found (40.3%, 127/315; 95% CI: 34.9-46.0), followed by Cryptosporidium spp. (3.5%, 11/315; 95% CI: 1.8-6.2), Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Encephalitozoon spp. (1.6%, 5/315; 95% CI: 0.5-3.7 each). Blastocystis was not identified in any of the faecal samples analysed. Sequence analyses confirmed the presence of canine-adapted assemblage D within G. duodenalis (n = 7). Three Cryptosporidium species were identified, namely canine-adapted C. canis (n = 9), zoonotic C. parvum (n = 1) and primarily anthroponotic C.hominis (n = 1). Genotyping tools enabled the identification of subtype family XXe2 within C. canis. Among microsporidia, the canine-adapted genotype PtEb IX was identified within E. bieneusi. Two samples were confirmed as Enc. intestinalis and three more as Enc. cuniculi genotype IV. This is the first record of Enc. intestinalis and Enc. cuniculi in the grey wolf globally. CONCLUSIONS:Silent carriage of intestinal microeukaryotes seems common in free-ranging grey wolves in southwestern Europe. Wolves can contribute to environmental contamination through the transmission stages (cysts, oocysts, spores) of species/genotypes potentially infective to humans. Individuals in close contact with wolf carcasses or their faecal material may be at potential risk of infection by microeukaryotic pathogens.