The Patagonian Sea is a highly productive marine ecosystem and a hotspot for seabird diversity and density in the Southwest Atlantic Ocean. Reports of unusual mortality events are relatively scarce in this region, likely due to under detection and investigation. In this study, we report on four unusual mortality events affecting seabirds in the Patagonian Sea from 2000 to 2006. Events 1 and 2 occurred at Golfo Nuevo and Chubut coast, Argentina in September–December 2000, affecting at least 4550 seabirds, mainly Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus). Event 3 occurred at the Falkland/Malvinas Islands during December 2002–January 2003, affecting at least 3500 seabirds, mainly gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis papua). Event 4 occurred at Punta Loma and Punta León, Argentina, in November 2006, affecting at least 57 seabirds, mainly kelp gulls (Larus dominicanus). The aetiology of Events 1 and 2 could not be determined, but malnutrition/starvation and paralytic shellfish poisoning, respectively, were identified as potential causes. Pathological findings and toxicological testing supported paralytic shellfish poisoning as the cause of Events 3 and 4. Our results illustrate how identifying the occurrence, cause and extent of unusual mortality events affecting seabirds can present significant challenges. Moreover, our investigations of the events display variations in timeliness and completeness, and our lack of certainty on aetiology reflects the shortcomings often faced in remote locations and low resource settings. Technological advances, such as smartphones, increased public awareness and connectivity, coupled with more and better equipped protected areas and diagnostic laboratories will likely aid in overcoming difficulties from past decades.

Despite being the most numerous penguin species in South America, exposure of the Magellanic Penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus) to pathogens has not yet been thoroughly assessed. We collected serum from 1,058 Magellanic Penguins at 10 breeding colonies along the entire latitudinal range of this species in Argentina. The work spanned 10 breeding seasons over 15 yr (1994-2008). Sera were tested for antibodies to select infectious agents. Antibodies reacting against 16 pathogens were detected (seroprevalence): Aspergillus sp. (15.1%), Chlamydia psittaci (6.5%), Salmonella Pullorum (3.1%), Salmonella Typhimurium (81.3%), Aviadenovirus sp. (18.1%), Duck atadenovirus A (23.6%), Anatid herpesvirus 1 (0.7%), Avian orthoreovirus (3.3%), Avian coronavirus M41 (43.5%), Avian coronavirus C46 (59.8%), Avian coronavirus A99 (37.4%), Avian coronavirus JMK (40.2%), Tremovirus A (0.3%), Avian avulavirus 1 (44.0%), Avian avulavirus 2 (43.8%), and Avian avulavirus 3 (46.6%). No antibodies were detected against nine infectious agents: Gallid alphaherpesvirus 1, Gallid alphaherpesvirus 2, Infectious bursal disease virus, Avastrovirus 2, West Nile virus, Eastern equine encephalitis virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, Western equine encephalitis virus, and Influenza A virus. While restricted by limitations inherent to serological methods, our results provide baseline knowledge for a key species in the South Atlantic Ocean. This information is valuable for adaptive conservation management in a time of increasing environmental stressors affecting the Patagonian Sea, one of the world's richest pelagic seabird communities.

Blood parameters (hematology and biochemistry) are useful in assessing the physiological, nutritional, and overall health status of both captive and free-ranging wildlife. In this study, we established baseline values for blood parameters (hematology, plasma biochemistry, and trace elements) of free-ranging adult Magellanic Penguins ( Spheniscus magellanicus ) sampled at ten breeding colonies covering their full latitudinal distribution in Patagonia over two decades. Males had higher packed cell volume, heterophil and eosinophil relative counts, total solids, copper, and iron but lower magnesium than females. We also compared our results with those obtained in previous studies on both captive and free-ranging Magellanic Penguins and other Spheniscus species. Our study provides a baseline for ecological studies investigating the physiological responses of this species to natural and anthropogenic changes. Furthermore, our findings provide clinically relevant reference values for Magellanic Penguins under care at zoos, aquaria, and rehabilitation centers.

The conservation of species is one of the foundations of conservation biology. Successful species conservation has often been defined as simply the avoidance of extinction. We argue that this focus, although important, amounts to practicing conservation at the “emergency room door,” and will never be a sufficient approach to conserving species. Instead, we elaborate a positive definition of species conservation on the basis of six attributes and propose a categorization of different states of species conservation using the extent of human management and the degree to which each of the attributes is conserved. These states can be used to develop a taxonomy of species “recovery” that acknowledges there are multiple stable points defined by ecological and social factors. “With this approach, we hope to contribute to a new, optimistic conservation biology that is not based on underambitious goals and that seeks to create the conditions under which Earth's biological systems can thrive.

Outbreaks of avian influenza, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Ebola hemorrhagic fever, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) and other emerging diseases have alarmed the public, caused massive economic losses, jeopardised business and diplomatic relations, and threatened the public's

As part of ongoing ecological studies of Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti) at Punta San Juan, Ica Department, Peru, health surveys were conducted in November 1992, 1993, and 1994. In the three surveys, 98 birds in total were handled for examination, and blood was collected for laboratory analysis from 90 of these birds. All birds seemed to be in good condition. Body weights of females were significantly lower in 1994 than in the other years. Fleas (Parapsyllus humboldti) and ticks (Ornithodoros amblus) were found on the penguins and in their nests. Females had significantly higher plasma calcium and phosphorus levels, and they had lower weights than males. No other differences were found between the sexes. Hematology, plasma chemistries, and plasma mineral levels varied between years. Positive antibody titers for Chlamydophila psittaci (62%), avian adenovirus (7%; 1994 only), paramyxovirus-2 (7%; 1993 only), and Salmonella Pullorum (7%) were found. Plasma chemistry and mineral levels differed between individuals testing positive vs. negative on serologic tests for avian adenovirus and Salmonella Pullorum. Serologic tests for antibodies to avian influenza A virus, avian encephalomyelitis virus, infectious bronchitis virus, avian reovirus, duck viral enteritis virus, equine encephalitis (eastern, western, and Venezuelan) viruses, infectious bursal disease virus, infectious laryngotracheitis virus, Aspergillus sp., and paramyxovirus-1 and -3 were negative. All chlorinated pesticide and polychlorinated biphenyl analyses were below detectable limits.

The global trade in wildlife provides disease transmission mechanisms that not only result in human disease outbreaks, but also threaten livestock, international trade, rural livelihoods, native wildlife populations, and the health of ecosystems. Global movement of animals for the pet trade is estimated at some 350 million live animals, worth approximately US$20 billion per year. Approximately one-quarter of this trade is thought to be illegal, hence not inspected or tested. Disease outbreaks resulting from trade in wildlife have caused hundreds of billions of dollars of economic damage globally. Rather than attempting to eradicate pathogens or the Wild species that may harbor them, a practical approach would include decreasing the contact rate among species, including humans, at the interface created by wildlife trade. Wild animals are captured, transported, and sold either live or dead and commingled throughout the process in a system of scale-free networks with major hubs rather than random or evenly distributed supply systems. As focal points for distribution and sales, the hubs provide control opportunities to maximize the effects of regulatory efforts as demonstrated with domestic animal trading systems (processing plants and wholesale and retail markets, for example). Focusing efforts at markets to regulate, reduce, or in some cases, eliminate the commercial trade in Wildlife could provide a cost-effective approach to decrease the risks for disease in humans, domestic animals, wildlife, and ecosystems.

Mas de un 60 por cien de las enfermedades infecciosas conocidas son comunes a animales y humanos. El comercio sin control de flora y fauna y el transporte masivo de animales advierten de la necesidad de desarrollar un nuevo paradigma sanitario.

An outbreak of West Nile virus (WNV) in and around New York City during the late summer of 1999 was the cause of extensive mortality among free-ranging birds. Within the Bronx Zoo/Wildlife Conservation Park, viral activity was also observed and produced some morbidity and mortality among specimens in the zoo's bird collection and probably caused morbidity in at least one specimen from the zoo's mammal collection. To determine the extent of the outbreak and attempt to ascertain the temporal appearance of virus within the park, a serologic survey of birds and mammals was performed. The survey showed that 34% of tested birds (125 of 368; 124 species) were positive for antibody to WNV. The virus caused a disease to infection ratio of 22% (27 of 125) among birds with a 70% (19 of 27) case fatality rate. In contrast, only 8% of the mammals (9 of 117; 35 species) possessed antibody to WNV and there was no virus-associated mortality. Testing of banked and fresh sera obtained from both birds and mammals revealed that there was no evidence of WNV circulation before the 1999 outbreak and that birds introduced into the park were not the source of the New York outbreak. West Nile virus RNA was detected in tissues from one bird that died in February 2000, long after the end of the mosquito transmission season. The potential importance of zoologic parks as possible sentinels for emerging diseases is discussed.

This study examined the foraging locations of lactating female and pre-breeding adult male South American sea lions Otaria flavescens in the Patagonian continental shelf, south-west Atlantic ocean. Research on females included the diving pattern, and was conducted during the 1994-98 breeding seasons in five northern and central Patagonian rookeries. Twenty females were satellite- tracked using the Argos system and yielded 1558 locations at sea. Satellite transmitters were also deployed on two adult males tracked for a total of 94 days (n = 364 locations) before the onset of the 1999 breeding season. Foraging trips for both sexes were confined to the temperate waters of the Patagonian continental shelf although males travelled greater distances than females, and arrived close (c. 80 km) to the edge of the shelf. Females from the same rookery dispersed widely and locations at sea often overlapped. Individual differences were apparent between coastal and pelagic animals. Trips lasted a mean of 3.4 days (S D = 1.3, n = 115 trips). Mean travel distance per trip was 206 km (sr) = 117 km, maximum 864 km, n = 115 trips). Females reached further distances by travelling faster rather than by extending the duration of trips. Consistent with the shallow continental shelf, 65% of 75 087 dives recorded for nine animals were in the range of 2-30 m. Males alternated periods on the coast with trips to sea lasting a mean of 5.7 days (SD = 3.0, n = 8 trips). Mean travel distance exceeded 591 km (1 SD = 301 km, n = 8 trips). Results are consistent with sex differences reported from diet studies. Locations overlap with the summer operation of shelf fisheries targeting species that are also part of the sea lion diet.

Wildlife conservation efforts are increasingly faced with declining, overcrowded or fragmented populations, environmental contamination, and the introduction of new species of either competitors or pathogens. These efforts are coming under increased public scrutiny in their attempt to balance human social and economic needs with those of wildlife. The integration of veterinary medicine as part of a multidisciplinary approach to conservation can assist in the successful planning, implementation and evaluation of conservation projects. Beyond the role of immobilizing animals, veterinarians can contribute to assessing and monitoring the health of wild populations, and can train others in modern approaches to working with and caring for wildlife.