Harmonious coexistence between humans, other animals and ecosystem services they support is a complex issue, typically impacted by landscape change, which affects animal distribution and abundance. In the last 30 years, afforestation on grasslands across Great Britain has been increasing, motivated by socio-economic reasons and climate change mitigation. Beyond expected benefits, an obvious question is what are the consequences for wider biodiversity of this scale of landscape change. Here, we explore the impact of such change on the expanding population of common buzzardsButeo buteo, a raptor with a history of human-induced setbacks. Using Resource-Area-Dependence Analysis (RADA), with which we estimated individuals' resource needs using 10-day radio-tracking sessions and the 1990s Land Cover Map of GB, and agent-based modelling, we predict that buzzards in our study area in lowland UK had fully recovered (to 2.2 ind km−2) by 1995. We also anticipate that the conversion of 30%, 60% and 90% of economically viable meadow into woodland would reduce buzzard abundance nonlinearly by 15%, 38% and 74%, respectively. The same approach used here could allow for cost-effective anticipation of other animals' population patterns in changing landscapes, thus helping to harmonize economy, landscape change and biodiversity.

Abstract The Eurasian red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) is an emblematic species for conservation, and its decline in the British Isles exemplifies the impact that alien introductions can have on native ecosystems. Indeed, red squirrels in this region have declined dramatically over the last 60 years due to the spread of squirrelpox virus following the introduction of the gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis). Currently, red squirrel populations in Britain are fragmented and need to be closely monitored in order to assess their viability and the effectiveness of conservation efforts. The situation is even more dramatic in the South of England, where S. vulgaris survives only on islands (Brownsea Island, Furzey Island, and the Isle of Wight). Using the D‐loop, we investigated the genetic diversity and putative ancestry of the squirrels from Southern England and compared them to a European dataset composed of 1,016 samples from 54 populations. We found that our three populations were more closely related to other squirrels from the British Isles than squirrels from Europe, showed low genetic diversity, and also harbored several private haplotypes. Our study demonstrates how genetically unique the Southern English populations are in comparison with squirrels from the continental European range. We report the presence of four private haplotypes, suggesting that these populations may potentially harbor distinct genetic lineages. Our results emphasize the importance of preserving these isolated red squirrel populations for the conservation of the species.

An animal's home-range can be expected to encompass the resources it requires for surviving or reproducing. Thus, animals inhabiting a heterogeneous landscape, where resource patches vary in size, shape and distribution, will naturally have home-ranges of varied sizes, so that each home-range encompasses a minimum required amount of a resource. Home-range size can be estimated from telemetry data, and often key resources, or proxies for them such as the areas of important habitat types, can be mapped. We propose a new method, Resource-Area-Dependence Analysis (RADA), which uses a sample of tracked animals and a categorical map to i) infer in which map categories important resources are accessible, ii) within which home range cores they are found, and iii) estimate the mean minimum areas of these map categories required for such resource provision. We provide three examples of applying RADA to datasets of radio-tracked animals from southern England: 15 red squirrels Sciurus vulgaris, 17 gray squirrels S. carolinensis and 114 common buzzards Buteo buteo. The analyses showed that each red squirrel required a mean (95% CL) of 0.48 ha (0.24--0.97) of pine wood within the outermost home-range, each gray squirrel needed 0.34 ha (0.11-1.12) ha of mature deciduous woodland and 0.035-0.046 ha of wheat, also within the outermost home-range, while each buzzard required 0.54 ha (0.35-0.82) of rough ground close to the home-range center and 14 ha (11-17) of meadow within an intermediate core, with 52% of them also relying on 0.41 ha (0.29-0.59) of suburban land near the home-range center. RADA thus provides a useful tool to infer key animal resource requirements during studies of animal movement and habitat use.

After 600 years of persecution, during which dramatic population fluctuations occurred, common buzzards are increasing in abundance and recolonizing most of lowland UK. But recovery is bringing them to the heart of a controversy. Once again, game-managers and poultry farmers blame buzzards for killing stock and thus harming livelihoods. To better understand buzzard biology and assess their impact on wildlife and domestic stock, field data and well-established and innovative modelling techniques were used. It was noted that phylopatry resulted in a naturally slow rate of buzzard population expansion, while habitat availability now limits population abundance. The impact of buzzard predations on released pheasants was found be variable but typically small, and it was also found that high predation can be reduced with simple pen management measures. Licensed translocation of ‘problem’ buzzards may also be an option, but only if accompanied by improvements in management to avert re-colonizing buzzards from also developing a livelihood-harming diet. The worry is, however, that concern about translocation of raptors risks diverting public opinion from the more serious issues of poor land use and climate change.

Adenovirus is an emerging threat to red squirrel Sciurus vulgaris conservation, but confirming clinically significant adenovirus infections in red squirrels is challenging. Rapid intestinal autolysis after death in wild animals frequently obscures pathology characteristic of the disease in animals found dead. We review the available literature to determine current understanding of both subclinical and clinically significant adenovirus infections in free-living wild and captive red squirrel populations. Benefits of scientific testing for adenovirus incorporating both transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technologies are compared and contrasted. We favour viral particle detection using TEM in animals exhibiting enteropathy at post-mortem and the use of PCR to detect subclinical cases where no enteric abnormalities are observed. Adenoviral infections associated with re-introduction studies are evaluated by examination of sporadic cases in wild populations and of data from captive collections used to service such studies. The paucity of data available on adenovirus infection in grey squirrel Sciurus carolinensis populations is documented, and we highlight that although subclinical virus presence is recorded in several locations in Great Britain and in Italy, no clinically significant disease cases have been detected in the species thus far. Current speculation about potential interspecific infection between sciurids and other woodland rodents such as wood mice Apodemus sylvaticus is examined. Where subclinical adenovirus presence has been detected in sympatric populations using the same point food sources, husbandry methods may be used to diminish the potential for cross-infection. Our findings highlight the importance of controlling disease in red squirrel populations by using clearly defined scientific methods. In addition, we propose hypothetical conservation benefits of restricting contact rates between red squirrels and sympatric grey squirrels and of limiting competition from other woodland rodent species.

Squirrelpox virus (SQPV) and adenovirus produce pathological disease in native red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris). SQPV in particular is a significant factor in regional population declines and is generally prevalent in the UK's introduced grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) population as an asymptomatic infection. Despite the role of the grey squirrel as a virus reservoir and potential inter-specific infection pathways being highlighted, there remains a paucity of field study data with known relative inter-specific infection rates and quantified frequency of interactions. Intriguingly, whilst captive zoological red squirrel collections are often present within woodland habitat containing wild grey squirrels, clinical pox cases are rarely observed unless red squirrels are released from the enclosures. In 2011 we monitored grey squirrel activity on an enclosure containing red squirrels. Grey squirrels were present for a cumulative total of 47.5 minutes within the twenty four hours of observation. A range of behaviours were recorded including feeding, and instances where discarded food fell into the red squirrel enclosures below. We interpret the value of these observations in the context of published theories of viral transmission. The local grey squirrels were subsequently culled and tested for evidence of both historical and current SQPV and adenovirus infections. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) assays did not amplify adenovirus DNA from grey squirrel blood samples, but positive results were recorded in faeces (3/18, 17%) and (10/18, 56%) in parallel spleen samples from the same animals. This variation in tissue specific detection rates suggests that previous long-term surveillance of adenovirus in wild grey squirrels focussing on blood samples may have significantly underestimated true infection rates. Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) tests revealed exposure to SQPV by antibody presence in 33% of the animals. Additionally, 22% of the animals contained detectable levels of both viruses. In parallel with laboratory and field studies in 2011, we collated historical unpublished reports and archived data from a range of UK squirrel collections and highlight some key cases of infection. We recommend that further behavioural and viral screening studies are focussed within scenarios where captive red squirrels are sympatric with wild grey squirrels.

The aims of this paper are to present the requirements and top level design of a decision support system that facilitates the exchange of environmental information between local level and higher levels of government, as well as to assess the possibility to include the local individual in the decision making process. The design of a tool for data collection and exchange of available data also aims to predict impacts of small-scale locally oriented actions by the local administration and residents on incomes and biodiversity, monitor results of the decisions that follow such prediction and inform central policy assessors to enable appropriate tuning of regulatory and fiscal incentives. The potential of data gathering for use in a DSS was tested by case studies across Europe. The main challenges for implementing effective environmental decision support are now more socio-economic than technical, requiring also a more local-orientated attitude of researchers and government.

In order to design TESS, it was necessary to determine how and what information is utilized across Europe when decisions affecting the environment are made at present, and which systems now in place appear to be working in terms of environmental protection and conservation. The authors used a Pan-European survey to determine not only which systems are currently in place but also what further information is needed by national and local governments as well as stakeholders. Results from this survey, together with published information from previous projects, the European Union and the United Nations, were collated into a database for further analysis. Here, the authors describe both the Pan-European survey methodology and also the database.

Information needs of government for SEA, EIA, and other aspects of biodiversity conservation and sustainable development are studied and reported in this chapter. This includes needs related to biodiversity for land use planning, for operation of the EU Common Agricultural Policy, for agricultural policy more generally, and for Biodiversity Action Plans. Legislation and its implementation are considered at European Union and member state level by direct enquiries and a preliminary questionnaire survey in project partner countries. Preliminary conclusions are drawn and lessons learned for a Pan-European survey.

Designing a Transactional Environmental Support System grew from the desire to allow citizens to exchange knowledge on local land and animals for the purpose of learning how to increase their sustainability in regards to biodiversity and livelihood.Transactional Environmental Support System Design: Global Solutions details the results of this project ranging from studies done in small, local communities to those done in much larger national settings. Survey results of government practices, availability of decision support software, and community responses to data recording are all highlighted in this emerging research. Additionally, the book goes on to emphasize the increasing potential for environmental decision support while directly addressing some of the challenges that must be overcome.

This chapter draws on results from previous chapters, in some cases creating new syntheses by combining information across chapters and including findings of previous projects. Its specific objective is to consolidate all these findings in the design of a system to support transaction of information for environmental assessments and decision support at central and local levels, by local managers of land and species as well as by policymakers. It recognises the need not merely to provide a technological tool, but also to consider demand and supply for information in that tool, the ease of use of the tool, motivation to use the tool and cost of maintaining the tool long-term: a tool that is not desirable, practical, and durable will not last. The chapter therefore first addresses who makes the most decisions, finding not only that local managers of land and species have high need of support, but also that their demand is least met by model-based decision support despite their high capacity to generate data. For this reason a system was designed primarily to accommodate needs of knowledge transfer at local level. Consideration of data quality, ownership, and confidentiality was important, together with scale, uncertainty (and resulting liability) of resulting decision support. All these considerations can be addressed by developing trust in operation of such a system, for which a basis in the civic sector (rather than in private business or government) was recommended. A portal was launched to continue informing all interests of the scope for building and opportunities from use of such a system.

A map for valuing ecosystem services in the 480 km(2) Frome catchment, to investigate scenarios of change in land use, was internet crowd-sourced. Scouts mapped deer habitats in 15% of the 30 km(2) Arne Parish, while 143 residents volunteered data on deer sightings in the 5-year community survey.

This chapter presents data on variation between national and local levels for information requirements, and on the pattern of data within these levels across Europe. It notes high decision-making, use, and generation of information at local level, with high variability between countries in some factors relevant to governance of environmental decisions.

This chapter summarises the intentions, processes, and findings of the project, funded by the Commission of the European Union, to design a Transactional Environmental Support System (TESS). It provides an executive summary for the book.