Despite transformational leadership's (TFL) prominence as a universally effective leadership approach for almost 4 decades, theoretical tensions persist regarding its contextual contingency and temporal stability. To address these tensions, we build on Johns' (2006) conceptualization of context and examine whether occupation, location, and time shape the use and effectiveness of TFL. Synthesizing 625 samples conducted globally over 4 decades (937 TFL-outcome correlations; N = 200,732), we meta-analytically assess whether TFL's foundational assumptions of generalizability hold or whether its use and effectiveness depend on broader contextual features. Results show that while TFL continues to positively predict attitudinal (e.g., commitment, trust) and performance (e.g., task, creative) outcomes, significant contextual differences exist. Specifically, TFL levels and effects vary by occupational (i.e., leader position and job type), cultural, and temporal contexts, with mixed support for compensation versus congruence perspectives. Notably, moderator effects vary across outcome domains, with occupational and cultural moderators exerting stronger effects on attitudinal outcomes than on performance outcomes. These patterns suggest that the mechanisms underlying TFL effects differ across outcome domains and challenge the assumption that transformational leaders universally motivate followers to go beyond expectations. These findings extend TFL theory by clarifying its boundary conditions and highlighting the importance of integrating omnibus contextual features into TFL models. Practically, our study informs evidence-based leadership development by underscoring that transformational approaches are not universally applicable and require contextual tailoring to maximize their effectiveness. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).

Background: Scalable evidence-based treatments for anxiety and depression, such as blended care therapy (BCT) that integrate digital tools are effective, but reporting on long-term outcomes is limited. Method: This pragmatic observational study examined the symptom stability and trajectories of individuals in the year following engagement in a BCT program. Participants included adults with clinical anxiety and/or depression measured by the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) or Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9). Assessments were sent during the initial episode of care and in the year following. Results: Participants included 27,835 adults (depression: 17,686 and anxiety: 24,853). Of these, 11,465 (41 % of those who received initial care; depression: 7223; anxiety: 10,218) completed at least one follow-up assessment (FUA). Average age was 34 years, 68-69 % were female, and 48-49 % were White across subsamples. Among FUA respondents, rates of reliable improvement or recovery on the PHQ-9 or GAD-7 for those who did not receive additional therapy were above 81 % across follow-up periods. Growth curve analysis for those who did not return for additional therapy revealed that both depression and anxiety groups demonstrated a statistically significant yet small linear effect of time in the year following treatment, with a 1.6-2.1 point increase in scores over the 12-month period. Conclusions: Among clients who completed FUAs and received no additional therapy, reliable improvement and recovery rates were high. Growth curve analysis demonstrated a small increase in symptoms over the 12-month interval, providing pragmatic evidence of long-term stability of treatment gains from BCT for anxiety and depression in a real-world setting.

Blended care therapy (BCT), which augments live, video-based psychotherapy sessions with asynchronous digital tools, has the potential to increase access to evidence-based treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, its effectiveness in diverse, real-world settings is not well-understood. This evaluation aimed to assess clinical outcomes of a BCT program for PTSD symptoms. A retrospective cohort analysis was conducted of 199 adults who received an employer-offered BCT program for PTSD symptoms that delivered either cognitive processing therapy or prolonged exposure. PTSD symptom severity was regularly assessed using the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5). Growth curve models were used to evaluate the trajectory of PTSD symptoms over the course of care, and an interaction term was added to assess outcomes by baseline PTSD symptom severity (i.e., PCL-5 ≥ 31 versus PCL-5 < 31). End-of-care reliable improvement and recovery were evaluated. On average, participants with baseline PCL-5 < 31 exhibited statistically significant declines in PTSD symptoms during care, while participants with baseline PCL-5 ≥ 31 showed statistically significantly steeper initial declines in PTSD symptoms that became less pronounced over time. Overall, 82.91% of participants demonstrated either reliable improvement or recovery in PTSD symptoms. This evaluation suggests BCT for PTSD symptoms can be beneficial in real-world settings. Future research should perform large-scale evaluations.

INTRODUCTION:The COVID-19 pandemic impacted young people's drinking. Yet, despite social gatherings posing a known risk for increased contraction, some college students still congregated to drink. Furthermore, some students posted about these drinking events to their public and/or private social media feeds. It is crucial to understand the relationships between posting alcohol-related content (ARC), drinking and adherence to COVID-19 recommendations because they may have contributed to the spread of the virus. METHODS:The current interval contingent, 14-day diary study assessed students' (N = 129) public and private ARC; their drinking; percentage of time wearing a mask and social distancing; and number of people they socialised with during drinking events (total crowd size) each day. RESULTS:Multilevel structural equation modelling was employed to examine relationships between ARC posting, drinking and behavioural outcomes. On days in which students posted both public and private ARC, they tended to drink more and in turn, reported attending gatherings with larger crowds. Curiously, on days in which students drank more, they indicated more mask wearing and social distancing, and on days in which students posted more private ARC, they also reported larger crowds. Finally, an indirect effect of drinking on the links between public and private ARC and mask wearing, social distancing and total crowd sizes emerged. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS:Findings revealed students continued to post and drink socially despite the risks, which may have encouraged others within their networks to engage in similar risky behaviours. Future public health crises should balance young people's need for social connection with risk mitigation efforts.

The onset of the pandemic saw shifts in messaging around the acceptability of alcohol consumption at different times and contexts. A psychometric analysis of responses to injunctive norms may reveal important differences in specific aspects of norms that were influenced by the pandemic. Study 1 used alignment analysis to evaluate measurement invariance in low- and high-risk injunctive norms across samples of Midwestern college students from 2019 to 2021. Study 2 used an alignment-within-confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) approach to replicate the solution from Study 1 in an independent longitudinal sample (N = 1,148) who responded between 2019 and 2021. For Study 1, the latent mean for high-risk norms was significantly higher in 2021, and the endorsement of four specific norms also differed. In Study 2, increases in latent means for low- and high-risk norms were observed across 2020 and 2021, and differential endorsement emerged for one high-risk norm item. Examining scale-level changes in injunctive drinking norms provides insight into how college students' perceptions changed in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Leveraging data on organizational social distancing initiatives (SDIs) this paper examines the link between SDI implementation and perceived organizational support (POS). The paper discusses and tests the intended beneficiary heuristic to help explain why and when employment practices may induce POS. We suggest that SDIs, involving various ways to separate employees to keep them safe, have the important secondary benefit of increasing employees' perception that the organization cares about their well-being and values their contributions. Using the intended beneficiary heuristic we argue that such favorable treatment as SDIs relates positively to POS most when employees attribute their implementation to the organization's concern for the welfare of employees. Results of two studies, a cross-sectional study with 121 employees in the United States and a longitudinal study with 103 employees in South Korea, indicate that SDIs were positively associated with employees' POS, which in turn improved their job satisfaction (Studies 1 and 2), affective organizational commitment, and organizational citizenship behavior (Study 2). The results also show that these relationships were stronger when employees perceived SDIs to be implemented to protect their welfare rather than as a means of protecting the organization.

The recent integration of traditional time series analysis and confirmatory factor analysis techniques allows researchers to evaluate the psychometric properties of measurement instruments at between- and within-persons levels while accounting for autoregressive dependencies. The current study applies a dynamic structural equation modeling (SEM) latent factor analysis (i.e., DSEM-CFA) to a sample of 333 individuals who completed the DASS-21 at their regular therapy sessions. The results of the DSEM-CFA illuminate the reliability, invariance, and structural features of each DASS-21 subscale both between and within persons. The results suggest that the DASS-21 reliably measures depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms when evaluating differences between persons, but does not reliably assess within-persons fluctuations in symptoms over time. The results also suggest that currently accepted methods of modeling sensitivity to change within an instrument are likely lacking and the DSEM-CFA provides insight into reliability within and between persons, which is extremely important for instruments used across time.

BACKGROUND:Drinking is a public health concern among college students. Viewing and posting alcohol-related content (ARC) on social media may influence students' favorable prototypes of people who post, thereby impacting their drinking. This study created a measure to explore students' ARC poster prototypes. We validated our measure by examining the prototypes as mediators of the associations between viewing and posting ARC and drinking behaviors. METHODS:Students (N = 8065) were asked to complete measures related to viewing and posting ARC, drinking behaviors, and adjectives that described their perceptions of the prototypical college student who posts ARC on social media. RESULTS:Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis yielded three prototypical images of students who post ARC on social media: hedonistic, despondent, and sociable. There were significant pathways between viewing and posting ARC and drinking. The sociable prototype emerged as a significant mediator of the association between ARC viewing and posting and drinking. CONCLUSIONS:Understanding the role of students' poster prototypes may be important for informing targeted interventions. Our results indicate that the underlying reason for increased drinking among students with greater ARC engagement is that they perceived other ARC viewers and posters as being more sociable. Future research may focus on modifying these perceptions.

Numerous organizational scandals have implicated leaders in encouraging employees to advance organizational objectives through unethical means. However, leadership research has not examined leaders’ encouragement of unethical behaviors. We define leader immorality encouragement (LIE) as an employee's perception that their leader encourages unethical behaviors on behalf of the organization. Across four studies, we found, as hypothesized, that (1) LIE promotes employees’ unethical behavior carried out with the intention to aid the organization (unethical pro-organizational behavior); (2) this relationship is mediated by employees’ moral disengagement and the expectation of rewards; (3) LIE, via moral disengagement, enhances employees’ self-serving unethical behavior; and (4) the relationship between LIE and unethical behavior is stronger when the leader has a higher quality exchange relationship with the employee and is perceived by the employee as having higher organizational status. Our set of findings contributes to an understanding of leaders’ attempts to further organization objectives by encouraging the unethical behavior of subordinates.

INTRODUCTION:The Drinking Motives Questionnaire-Revised Short Form (DMQ-R-SF) is widely used among alcohol researchers studying adolescents and young adults. The psychometric properties of the DMQ-R-SF have been examined among university students in many countries, but to our knowledge, not in Australia, New Zealand or Argentina. We sought to examine the reliability and endorsement of the items on the DMQ-R-SF, and test the associations between the DMQ-R-SF subscales and alcohol use, and negative alcohol consequences between university students from Australia, New Zealand and Argentina.METHOD:University students (N = 820) in Australia (n = 315), New Zealand (n = 265) and Argentina (n = 240) completed a confidential online alcohol survey which included the DMQ-R-SF, the Daily Drinking Questionnaire and the Brief Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire.RESULTS:Using the alignment method, support for the four-factor model on the DMQ-R-SF emerged and the factor loadings for 11 of the 12 items were invariant across sites. Most items (8 out of 12) on the DMQ-R-SF were fully invariant across all sites, but some small differences in item reliability for one item, and endorsement for three items emerged between the sites. Across the three countries, coping motives were positively correlated with negative alcohol consequences. Enhancement motives were positively associated with both alcohol use and negative alcohol consequences among students from Australia and New Zealand.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS:Most items on the DMQ-R-SF were comparably reliable among the university students sampled from Australia, New Zealand and Argentina. Our preliminary findings suggest that the DMQ-R-SF can be reliably used with university students from these countries.

The employee-organization relationship (EOR) is a key component of organizational behavior. Researchers have consistently shown that employees who perceive that they are supported by their organizations (favorable EORs) tend to have positive attitudes and behave in a manner that helps the organization to reach its goals. For many years, the reciprocity norm (e.g. felt obligation) has been a widely accepted explanation for the EOR. Yet, despite calls to explore additional pathways, little work has examined other mediating mechanisms between favorable EORs and outcomes. We draw on the affect theory of social exchange to argue for the mediating effects of gratitude, felt obligation, and pride on the relationship between perceived organizational support (POS) and outcomes. Our results-from three field studies-show that (a) gratitude mediated the relationships of POS with extra-role performance aimed at aiding the organization, affective organizational commitment, and job satisfaction, (b) the mediating effect of gratitude was stronger than the mediating effect of felt obligation, and (c) gratitude made stronger contributions to extra-role performance and affective organizational commitment than did pride. We discuss theoretical and practical implications.

Several interesting variations on the Common Fate Model (CFM) for dyadic analysis have emerged over the past decade. For instance, the multilevel-CFM is characterized by directional paths between Person level observed X and Y variables in addition to the Dyad level direct path between the corresponding latent variables. Although this model appears to provide a decomposition of the Y on X regression into Dyad and Person level components, close examination reveals that this specification yields a Dyad level coefficient that captures the contextual effect, or the discrepancy in the between- and within-cluster coefficients. The present work elucidates key features of the multilevel-CFM that produce the contextual effect parametrization, and introduces an alternative specification, the between-within-CFM that yields a decomposition of the Y on X regression consistent with the general multilevel SEM literature. These variations on the CFM are illustrated using empirical examples, supported by syntax for commonly used SEM software.

Forced migrants suffer from significant psychological distress. However, they often prioritize urgent practical resettlement needs over mental health needs. The present study used a quasi-experimental design to compare pathways of treatment for survivors of torture (N = 369) from 42 different counties receiving care from a refugee health clinic. Random intercept ANOVAs were used to compare combined case management services and psychological treatment (CM-PT) to case management services only (CM) on changes in cultural adaptation and global functioning over time. Results showed that both groups improved on each outcome. Importantly, the CM-PT group endorsed greater improvements in cultural adaptation (b = 0.28, 95% CI 0.14, 0.41, p ≤ 0.001) and global functioning (b = 3.29, 95% CI 1.33, 5.25, p = 0.001) compared to the CM group. These findings suggest that treatment for survivors of torture should be multifaceted and include case management and psychological treatment. Case management services alone may be beneficial when socio-cultural and resource barriers exist for mental health treatment.

Social media posts may elicit strong, instantaneous feelings of irritation, or “annoyance.” The current experiment investigated how participants’ ratings of Facebook posts and their levels of closeness to the poster impacted these feelings. Respondents (N = 476) were asked to rate how irrelevant, inappropriate, mundane, and annoying Facebook posts from an imagined close friend, moderately close friend, and acquaintance were. A cross-classified, Bayesian structural equation model determined the unique contributions at the rater level, target level, and the distinct combination of rater and target at the within level. At the within level, results suggested irrelevance, mundaneness, and inappropriateness of posts were positively associated with annoyance. At the rater level, we found participants who tended to rate all posts as being more inappropriate, spent more time on Facebook, and/or reported having more Facebook friends, tended to report greater annoyance. Finally, at the target level, participants rated acquaintances’ posts as being more irrelevant and mundane relative to close friends. Contrary to expectations, posts from acquaintances did not appear to evoke more annoyance. Overall, a consistent finding between inappropriateness and annoyance emerged across all three levels such that inappropriate content posted to Facebook appeared to strongly elicit annoyance among users.

Objective: MDMA/Ecstasy motives differ from those of other substances such as alcohol, cannabis, and methamphetamine. Previous literature on alcohol and cannabis use identified social, expansion, enhancement, coping, and conformism as primary motives for use. MDMA/Ecstasy users also report using the drug for increases in selfawareness and energy. The development of an MDMA/Ecstasy use motives assessment has potential to inform treatment interventions and public policy on harm reduction. Method: An MDMA/Ecstasy use motives assessment was developed from alcohol and cannabis motives measures and qualitative feedback from MDMA/Ecstasy users. Participants included an international sample of adults (N = 1754) who completed an online questionnaire regarding their motives for using recreational MDMA/Ecstasy.Results: Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis supported a 4-factor MDMA/Ecstasy motives scale. The four motive scales showed good internal consistency reliabilitySocial (alpha = 0.88) Expansion (alpha = 0.81), Coping (alpha = 0.82), and Energy (alpha = 0.75). Conformity and Enhancement did not emerge as significant factors. Analyses demonstrated convergent and discriminant validity with relevant constructs including quantity/frequency of use, MDMA use disorder, sensation seeking personality, and positive and negative consequences of use.Conclusions: MDMA/Ecstasy use motives differ from those of other substances due to the distinctly stimulating, emotional, and empathic effects sought by users. By identifying salient MDMA/Ecstasy motives, this study highlights the unique aspects of recreational MDMA/Ecstasy use. This research has utility for informing clinical practice and contributing to public health harm reduction efforts.

Transformational leadership (TL) is one of the most studied leadership constructs found in the literature and has been related to positive follower outcomes (i.e., performance, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment). However, as the nature of work and employees continually change in the modern era, scholars have questioned the extent to which the relevance and importance of TL has strengthened or weakened over time. Using a sample of U.S. based studies consisting of 105 studies, 173 effect sizes, and a total sample size of 44,566 between the years of 1987 and 2018, we examined changes in the use of TL and the strength of the relationship between TL and the organizationally relevant outcomes of follower in-role performance, extra-role performance, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, satisfaction with leader, and leader effectiveness. Our results show that over the past thirty years, supervisor usage of TL behaviors, as indicated by mean level changes, has increased over time. Furthermore, the relationships between TL and follower job satisfaction, organizational commitment, satisfaction with leader, and leader effectiveness have remained stable over the past thirty years. In contrast, preliminary evidence suggests that the relationship between TL and supervisor rated follower in-role and extra-role performance has increased over time.

Background: Depression and anxiety are leading causes of disability worldwide. Though effective treatments exist, depression and anxiety remain undertreated. Blended care psychotherapy, combining the scalability of online interventions with the personalization and engagement of a live therapist, is a promising approach for increasing access to evidence-based care. Objectives: To evaluate the effectiveness and individual contribution of two components - i) digital tools and ii) video-based therapist-led sessions - in a blended care CBT-based intervention under real world conditions. Methods: A retrospective cohort design was used to analyze N = 1372 US-based individuals who enrolled in blended care psychotherapy. Of these, at baseline, 761 participants had depression symptoms in the clinical range (based on PHQ-9), and 1254 had anxiety symptoms in the clinical range (based on GAD-7). Participants had access to the program as a mental health benefit offered by their employer. The CBT-based blended care psychotherapy program consisted of regular video sessions with therapists, complemented by digital lessons and digital exercises assigned by the clinician and completed in between sessions. Depression and anxiety levels and clients' treatment engagement were tracked throughout treatment. A 3-level individual growth curve model incorporating time-varying covariates was utilized to examine symptom trajectories of PHQ-9 scores (for those with clinical range of depression at baseline) and GAD-7 scores (for those with clinical range of anxiety at baseline). Results: On average, individuals exhibited a significant decline in depression and anxiety symptoms during the initial weeks of treatment (P < .001), and a continued decline over subsequent weeks at a slower rate (P < .001). Engaging in a therapy session in a week was associated with lower GAD-7 (b = -0.81) and PHQ-9 (b = -1.01) scores in the same week, as well as lower GAD-7 (b = -0.58) and PHQ-9 (b = -0.58) scores the following week (all P < .01). Similarly, engaging with digital lessons was independently associated with lower GAD-7 (b = -0.19) and PHQ-9 (b = -0.18) scores during the same week, and lower GAD-7 (b = -0.25) and PHQ-9 (b = -0.27) the following week (all P < .01). Conclusions: Therapist-led video sessions and digital lessons had separate contributions to improvements in symptoms of depression and anxiety over the course of treatment. Future research should investigate whether clients' characteristics are related to differential effects of therapist-led and digital components of care.

Introduction: Prior studies have supported the effectiveness of blended interventions for anxiety and depression; however, outcomes research of large-scale blended interventions for these conditions is limited. Objective : To investigate the outcomes of scaled-up blended care (BC) cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), a program that combined video-based psychotherapy with internet CBT, for symptoms of anxiety and depression. Materials and Methods : Participants were 6,738 U.S.-based adults with elevated symptoms of anxiety (Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 [GAD-7] ≥ 8) and/or depression (Patient Health Questionnaire-9 [PHQ-9] ≥ 10) at baseline who received BC-CBT as an employer-offered mental health benefit. The primary outcomes, anxiety (GAD-7) and depression (PHQ-9) symptoms, were routinely measured in the program. Recovery and reliable improvement in outcomes were calculated, and growth curve models evaluated change in outcomes during treatment and the effects of engaging in psychotherapy sessions on outcomes. Results : On average, participants received treatment for 7.6 (standard deviation = 6.2) weeks. By the end of care, 5,491 (81.5%) participants had reliable improvement in either anxiety or depression symptoms; in addition, 5,535 (82.1%) fell below the clinical threshold for either anxiety or depression symptoms (i.e., recovered). Declines in anxiety and depression symptoms were statistically significant over the course of BC-CBT (both p's < 0.01), with the rate of decline significantly decreasing for each outcome as treatment progressed (both p's < 0.01). Each psychotherapy session completed was significantly associated with lower anxiety and depression symptoms during the week of the session and the subsequent week (all p's < 0.01). Conclusions : This real-world study provides evidence that scaled-up BC-CBT can be effective in the treatment of symptoms of anxiety and depression.

Objective:This study examines predictors of non-initiation of care and dropout in a blended care CBT intervention, with a focus on early digital engagement and sociodemographic and clinical factors.Methods:This retrospective cohort analysis included 3566 US-based individuals who presented with clinical levels of anxiety and depression and enrolled in a blended-care CBT (BC-CBT) program. The treatment program consisted of face-to-face therapy sessions via videoconference and provider-assigned digital activities that were personalized to the client's presentation. Multinomial logistic regression and Cox proportional hazard survival analysis were used to identify predictors of an increased likelihood of non-initiation of therapy and dropout.Results:Individuals were more likely to cancel and/or no-show to their first therapy session if they were female, did not disclose their ethnicity, reported poor financial status, did not have a college degree, endorsed more presenting issues during the onboarding triage assessment, reported taking antidepressants, and had a longer wait time to their first appointment. Of those who started care, clients were significantly more likely to drop out if they did not complete the digital activities assigned by their provider early in treatment, were female, reported more severe depressive symptoms at baseline, reported taking antidepressants, and did not disclose their ethnicity.Conclusions:Various sociodemographic and clinical predictors emerged for both non-initiation of care and for dropout, suggesting that clients with these characteristics may benefit from additional attention and support (especially those with poor early digital engagement). Future research areas include targeted mitigation efforts to improve initiation rates and curb dropout.