Climate change is an increasing cause of biodiversity loss. The extinction of species is the most dramatic case, but also a large number of species will be forced to migrate due to the loss of habitat. We conducted a study on the current distribution of Warburgia salutaris (Canellaceae), one of the wild harvested medicinal plant species endangered through the effects of bark harvesting and land transformation, as well as the potential future distribution, extent of occurrence and habitat quality under climate change. For that, we used current occurrence data and uncorrelated environmental variables for the years 2040–2100, under four future Shared Socio-economic Pathways (SSPs) scenarios (SSP126, SSP245, SSP370, and SSP585) for four general climatic models (GCMs). A mobility-oriented parity was conducted to identify extrapolation risk. Future prediction indicated a considerable increase of highly suitable areas under all SSPs scenarios in almost all the GCMs in southern Mozambique compared to the current distribution. Overall, the suitable area and its habitat quality increased steadily in 80 years compared to the current situation. Hence, climate change could not be argued as a threat to W. salutaris for the studied period. In this context, actions such as reintroduction and cultivation to provide alternative sources of bark supply, could be capitalised to alleviate pressure on natural populations while allowing their recovery and the establishment of new core populations.

Studies on the cultural importance of unconventional food plants (UFP) have been scarce, in contrast to a vast literature focusing on medicinal plants. We adopted the widely used criterion of cultural importance to study UFP used in two quilombola communities in Bahia State, northeastern Brazil. Free-listing was applied to identify known/used food plants in the communities, and semi-structured interviews were carried out to collect information about them. Statistical analyses were performed using a correlation matrix of importance values. A random sample of the numbers of citations per species indicated a strong correlation between cultivated and wild species. The average ages of the two communities were similar, but indicated an influence of age on their knowledge of non-conventional plants and their consumption. Both wild and cultivated species have relevant cultural importance. Deforestation, the lack of availability of unconventional food plants, and the ease of access to conventional and industrialized foods are all directly related to the low consumption of UFP, pointing to a lack of nutritional and health information in those communities.

Babaçu (Attalea pindobassu) is a valuable palm native to the Caatinga, inhabiting the mountains of the Chapada Diamantina, northeastern Brazil. We explored the Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK) of the Coxo de Dentro extractivist community regarding babaçu’s flowering and fruiting and the alignment with the phenological pattern observed through monthly monitoring of this palm, from January to December 2021. We investigated the impact of climatic factors on the reproductive phenology of babaçu, considering LEK and monthly phenological monitoring. LEK was examined through phenological calendars developed within focus groups. The reproductive events of the babaçu were found to be continuous, with flowering responding positively to photoperiod and fruiting positively influenced by temperature, consistent with LEK of the palm’s phenology. There were no significant differences in the time intervals of reproductive events between field-monitored phenological observations and LEK. Babaçu extractivists from Coxo de Dentro possess in-depth knowledge about the reproductive phenology of this palm as well as the climatic factors affecting its phenological expression. We suggest that tapping LEK is a promising approach for rapid recognition of tropical plant phenological patterns. In the case of Attalea pindobassu, we recommend that fruit harvesting be concentrated during the fruiting peak periods of January and February.

The Caatinga, an exclusively Brazilian biome, stands as a reservoir of remarkable biodiversity. Its significance transcends ecological dimensions, given the direct reliance of the local population on its resources for sustenance and healthcare. While Myrtaceae, a pivotal botanical family within the Brazilian flora, has been extensively explored for its medicinal and nutritional attributes, scant attention has been directed towards its contextual relevance within the Caatinga's local communities. Consequently, this inaugural systematic review addresses the ethnobotanical roles of Myrtaceae within the Caatinga, meticulously anchored in the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. We searched Scopus, MEDLINE/Pubmed, Scielo, and LILIACS. No date-range filter was applied. An initial pool of 203 articles was carefully scrutinized, ultimately yielding 31 pertinent ethnobotanical studies elucidating the utility of Myrtaceae amongst the Caatinga's indigenous populations. Collectively, they revealed seven distinct utilization categories spanning ~54 species and 11 genera. Psidium and Eugenia were the genera with the most applications. The most cited categories of use were food (27 species) and medicinal (22 species). The importance of accurate species identification was highlighted, as many studies did not provide enough information for reliable identification. Additionally, the potential contribution of Myrtaceae fruits to food security and human health was explored. The diversity of uses demonstrates how this family is a valuable resource for local communities, providing sources of food, medicine, energy, and construction materials. This systematic review also highlights the need for more ethnobotanical studies to understand fully the relevance of Myrtaceae species in the Caatinga, promoting biodiversity conservation, as well as support for local populations.

The rising demand for medicinal plants in urban settings, coupled with the rapid urbanization process, has spurred researchers to document the biological diversity of the plant trade in numerous regions and investigate potential health and environmental consequences associated with this commerce. This article provides a comprehensive review of the ethnobotany of medicinal plants sold in local markets. It delves into the most current themes explored in ethnobotanical studies, focusing on the socioeconomic and cultural aspects of the continents and countries covered. A total of 170 articles on medicinal and/or magical-religious plants were analyzed. We note that many recent studies still lack a foundation in theoretical and hypothetical frameworks, and other limitations, indicating challenges in applying that research to address observed health and environmental problems. We emphasize the socioeconomic and cultural data from participating groups, given the significant role that the plant trade plays in maintaining cultural identities and serving low-income populations in both urban and rural environments. Nevertheless, the importance of more participatory and interdisciplinary approaches in studies conducted in urban environments becomes imperative. Moreover, the prevalence of urban ethnobotanical research in developing countries opens up opportunities for studies to adopt a decolonizing perspective, recognizing not only the protagonism of global south countries in the development of research in urban ethnobotany, but also the sociabilities and non-hegemonic knowledge about medicinal plants held by various social subjects involved in the commercial chain of medicinal plants.

Babacu (Attalea pindobassu Bondar) is a native palm of Brazil's Caatinga Domain. The species has significant socioeconomic value to local communities in the Chapada Diamantina, Northeast Brazil, who employ it for cosmetic, food, and handicraft purposes. We investigated the suitability of habitats of babacu using Ecological Niche Modeling under current and future climate scenarios, SSP2-4.5 (optimistic) and SSP5-8.5 (pessimistic), to understand the effects of land use and climate change on the potential distribution of A. pindobassu, and to evaluate the effectiveness of the current network of protected areas (PAs) in long-term conservation of the species. The current distribution model predicted climate suitability of 68,754 km2, consisting of 8.04% of the Caatinga area. Our results demonstrate a recent suppression of vegetation cover in the areas of climatic suit-ability. According to the models designed for SSP2-4.5 scenarios, the suitability areas are being reduced over the years when compared to the current model: (i) 2040 reduction of 23.94%; (ii) 2060 reduction of 50.7%; (iii) 2080 reduction of 64.73%; (iv) 2100 reduction of 75.21%. For SSP5-8.5 scenarios, the generated models showed a more accentuated reduction in all evaluated periods: (i) 2040 reduction of 37.27%; (ii) 2060 reduction of 60.46%; (iii) 2080 and 2100 reduction of 100%, indicating probable extinction of the species. A low percentage of climate suitability areas was observed within the PAs, in the current scenario and in the future scenarios. The creation of germplasm banks for ex situ conservation, creation and expansion of PAs, and monitoring of natural populations is crucial to ensure the sustainability of this palm's resources for local communities into the future.

Non-indigenous communities are particularly insightful in terms of understanding the process of healing plant acquisition and loss. This study explores the traditional medicinal plant knowledge and use of a long-isolated, African-descended community in the Atlantic rainforests of northeastern Brazil. We investigated the primary plant species used and their therapeutic applications. We hypothesized that women and the oldest members of the community would be the most knowledgeable about medicinal plants. We carried out semi-structured interviews and walk-in-the-woods plant collecting techniques with 74 informants. We identified 133 ethnospecies of plants used to treat a wide variety of illnesses. The most commonly used plant parts were leaves; the most common form of preparation was as infusion. As anticipated, medicinal plant knowledge generally increased with age. However, there was no significant gender difference in plant knowledge. We attribute this to the increasingly similar livelihood roles and geographical spaces occupied by men and women in the community. There was, however, a trend for women to be more knowledgeable about the healing properties of herbaceous and cultivated plants. Increasing contact with the outside world has resulted in a confluence of traditional, often African-derived healing therapies, with the novel healing plant knowledge and allopathic medicine of outsiders.

Reviewed by: Under the Shade of Thipaak: The Ethnoecology of Cycads in Mesoamerica and the Caribbean by Michael D. Carrasco et al. Robert Voeks Michael D. Carrasco, Angélica Cibrián-Jaramillo, Mark A. Bonta, and Joshua D. Englehardt Under the Shade of Thipaak: The Ethnoecology of Cycads in Mesoamerica and the Caribbean. Gainesville, Florida, USA: University Press of Florida, 2022. XV + 358 pp. Tables, notes, references, index. $95 hardcover (ISBN 978-0-8130-6936-4). $50 hardcover (IBSN 978-0-8165-4279-6); $50 eBook (ISBN 978-0-8165-4525-4). Each spring, i tour the california State University-Fullerton Arboretum with my biogeography students. Among the many sectors of the arboretum (most meant to resemble California biomes) is a sizeable section given over to cycads—odd because the group is not native to California. I would share my limited knowledge of the plants: that they are ancient conifers, that they are dioecious (separate male and female individuals), that they have highly toxic seeds that have been associated with neurological disease among Pacific Islanders, and finally, in spite of their frond-like leaves, that they are not palms. A few students would recognize them as fairly common front-yard ornamentals, known unfortunately as sago palm, further cementing their taxonomic confusion. Under the Shade of the Thipaak, a fascinating collection of essays on this misunderstood order of plants by Michael Carrasco and colleagues, explores the agronomic, historical, and cultural significance of this underappreciated and understudied group. Having survived in the tropics and subtropics since well before the Great Dying some 250 million years ago, cycads are today one of the most useful undomesticated plants in Mesoamerica and the Caribbean, and yet are also "one of the world's most threatened land plants" (p. 27). The term Thipaak in the title refers to a child fertility deity among Mexico's Teenek whose name means "heart of maize"; but this spiritual entity also takes the form of certain cycads, which are understood to be the Maize Lord (p. 176). It is this convergence of maize, cycads, and people that is the genesis of this volume. In eight chapters, written by anthropologists, biologists, chemists, and geographers from Mexico, Puerto Rico, and the United States, much of the misunderstanding regarding the role of cycads in the ethnoecology of the region is put to rest, while at the same time fertile avenues for future inquiry are opened up. The Introduction provides a useful overview of the significance of cycads around the world. After a brief review of the ecology and biogeography of the group, the authors explore the surprising ethnobotanical significance of cycads to cultures throughout the tropical realm—past and present. In India, the pollen cones (microstrobili) are consumed by young men as an aphrodisiac, and in parts of Japan cycads are prepared into a miso. In Vanuatu, cycads retain tremendous symbolic value, and are "revered as sacred ancestors" (p. 13). In South Africa, the Rain Queens (hereditary rainmakers of Limpopo Province) operate in lush gardens festooned by one of the world's largest cycads (Mudjadji's cycad, Encephalartos transvenosus). Wherever they occur, cycads have been consumed, used as medicine, made into crafts, and in [End Page 226] many cases attained deep symbolic value. Geographers will be drawn to several chapters, including chapter 3, in which Jaime Pagán-Jiménez explores the paleohistory of cycads in the Caribbean. The author notes that the earliest written description of cycad consumption was made by the Spanish priest Bartolomé de las Casas in the early 1500s. He recorded that "bread" was made by grating the underground stems of guáyiga (Zamia pumila), leaving it out several days to become "swollen with maggots," and then cooked as cakes (p. 98). Using starch grain evidence from sites throughout the Caribbean, the author shows that this (or similar species) of cycads have been exploited for food for at least 7,800 years. Interestingly, because this evidence for early Caribbean use of cycads is outside of the plant's current natural range, it seems likely that the plants were driven to extinction in the region, or perhaps they were acquired in exchanges with people from regions where it grows...

Southern California has witnessed a burgeoning Indian immigrant population in recent decades. And among the cultural features that most distinguishes Indians is their cuisine. Their use of herbs and spices in food and medicine, in particular, is tightly bound to language, religion, gender, and overall cultural identity. Identifying how Indian immigrants' culinary choices adapt to southern California's varied and often fast-food based gastronomy, particularly impacts on the inter-generational transmission of traditional culinary knowledge, is important in terms of understanding the role of cultural retention and assimilation, as well as culturally-defined notions of food in physical and psychological well-being. We explored these questions by means of interviews with 31 Indian immigrant women in southern California. Participants were selected by means of snowball sampling. Our working hypothesis was that problems with sourcing and cultural assimilation pressures would have eroded the use of traditional herbs and spices. A total of 66 herbs and spices (and associated seasonings) were reported. Of these, the highest frequency of use was recorded for turmeric (100% of respondents) followed by cilantro, cinnamon, clove, cumin, curry leaves, and ginger (all 97%). The highest Species Medicinal Use Values were recorded, in descending order, for turmeric, ginger, fenugreek seeds, clove, cinnamon, curry leaves, and Tulsi. Contrary to expectations, there was no significant association between years resident in the United States and decreasing use of herbs and spices. Indeed, in some cases the confluence of northern and southern Indian immigrant women with a new identity simply as “Indian” resulted in an increase in the knowledge and use of herbs and spices. Spices are nearly all locally sourced, and where specific herbs are not readily accessible, they are cultivated in homegardens or brought directly from India. Many Indian immigrants are relatively prosperous and able to travel frequently to and from India, thus maintaining close cultural ties with their homeland. Indian immigrant women are fully aware of the health benefits associated with the use of traditional herbs and spices, and all participants reported that Indian food is a healthier choice than American cuisine. Knowledge is passed via vertical transmission, primarily through mothers and grandmothers to daughters. Overall, there is little concern among female Indian immigrants to southern California that knowledge and use of their traditional herbs and spices are in a state of decline.

Background: Ethnotaxonomy seeks to understand how members of a culture name and categorize biological organisms in their local language. This research examined the ethnotaxonomy of plants among the Mixtec people in the municipality of San Miguel el Grande, Oaxaca, Mexico.Methods: We conducted a collaborative research between 2019 and 2020 with 42 Mixtec men and women between 38 and 100 years of age, in the ten communities that make up the municipality. We focused on classification, nomenclature and plant identification.Results: There is a more or less hierarchical classification that contemplates both cognitive and utilitarian aspects. The nomenclature shows that the Mixtec of the study area have taken into account the characteristics of the plants—cultural, experiential, and ecological—to name them. Identification is based on multiple morphological, ecological, cultural and experiential mechanisms.Conclusion: The botanical ethnotaxonomy of San Miguel el Grande is rich and varied, revealing that plants play an important role in the lives of people. However, it seems that the disuse of some plants and the Spanish language is conditioning the maintenance of Mixtec plant names.Keywords: Folk taxonomy, Mixtec region, ethnobotany, Mixtec language, ethnotaxonomy.

This study explores the cultural, economic, and ecosystem impacts of an invasive plant species, southern cattail (Typha domingensis), on the indigenous Purépecha community of Lake Pátzcuaro, Mexico. Locally known as chuspatel, the species inhabits the same lacustrine space as the native southern bulrush (Schoenoplectus californicus), known locally as tule. In order to control the species, southern cattail is routinely mechanically harvested in parts of the lake. Southern bulrush, on the other hand, is native to the lake, has similar ecological characteristics as southern cattail, and has long been used by indigenous crafts persons. Our initial goal was to explore the distribution and possible negative effects of an invasive plant on a culturally important native wetland plant species. Data collection included open ended interviews, participant observation, and GIS-based vegetation mapping of the two species. Contrary to expectations, our results revealed several cultural, economic, and possibly ecosystem service benefits associated with the arrival and spread of this invasive organism. Cartographic data show that the two species overlap in distribution in the lake. Observations suggest that the invasive species may provide an additional ecosystem service of enhanced habitat for an endemic snake subspecies (Thamnophis eques patzcuaroensis). Moreover, rather than displacing a culturally useful native species, the invasive southern cattail has been incorporated into the repertoire of local crafts and now represents an important addition to the income and culture of the Purépecha. Our study suggests that greater management emphasis should be placed on local and cultural values when considering the overall impacts of invasive organisms.

Are Mixtec Forgetting Their Plants? Intracultural Variation of Ethnobotanical Knowledge in Oaxaca, Mexico. Erosion of ethnobotanical knowledge in indigenous communities has been reported increasingly in recent decades. This study quantitatively and qualitatively analyzed the variation of ethnobotanical knowledge in communities of the high Mixtec subregion. We interviewed 64 Mixtec about edible and medicinal plants. We evaluated the knowledge (names and knowledge of use) and the active application of the use among people of different ages, gender, education level, migrants, and non–migrants. In general, increasing age, female gender, decreasing formal education, and non–migration are positively correlated with the knowledge and use of plants. The most alarming finding concerns the knowledge of the Mixtec names of plant—people under 30 years old no longer know them. We envision a process of transition and adaptation of the knowledge and uses of plants, but inevitably enormous ethnobotanical knowledge is quickly disappearing along with the Mixtec language. ¿Los mixtecos están olvidando sus plantas? Variación intracultural del conocimiento etnobotánico en Oaxaca, México. La erosión del conocimiento etnobotánico en las comunidades indígenas se ha informado cada vez más en las últimas décadas. Este estudio analizó cuantitativa y cualitativamente la variación del conocimiento etnobotánico en comunidades de la subregión Mixteca alta. Entrevistamos a 64 mixtecos sobre plantas comestibles y medicinales. Evaluamos el conocimiento (nombres y conocimiento de uso) y la aplicación activa del uso entre personas de diferentes edades, género, nivel educativo, migrantes y no migrantes. En general, el aumento de la edad, el género femenino, la baja educación formal y la no migración se correlacionan positivamente con el conocimiento y uso de las plantas. El hallazgo más alarmante se refiere al conocimiento de los nombres mixtecos de las plantas: las personas menores de 30 años ya no los conocen. Visualizamos un proceso de transición y adaptación del conocimiento y usos de las plantas, pero inevitablemente un enorme conocimiento etnobotánico está desapareciendo rápidamente junto con el idioma mixteco.

The pepper-bark tree ( Warburgia salutaris ) is one of the most highly valued medicinal plant species worldwide. Native to southern Africa, this species has been extensively harvested for the bark, which is widely used in traditional health practices. Illegal harvesting coupled with habitat degradation has contributed to fragmentation of populations and a severe decline in its distribution. Even though the species is included in the IUCN Red List as Endangered , genetic data that would help conservation efforts and future re-introductions are absent. We therefore developed new molecular markers to understand patterns of genetic diversity, structure, and gene flow of W. salutaris in one of its most important areas of occurrence (Mozambique). In this study, we have shown that, despite fragmentation and overexploitation, this species maintains a relatively high level of genetic diversity supporting the existence of random mating. Two genetic groups were found corresponding to the northern and southern locations. Our study suggests that, if local extinctions occurred in Mozambique, the pepper-bark tree persisted in sufficient numbers to retain a large proportion of genetic diversity. Management plans should concentrate on maintaining this high level of genetic variability through both in and ex-situ conservation actions.

Leaf vegetables and other edible greens are a crucial component of traditional diets in sub-Saharan Africa, used popularly in soups, sauces, and stews. In this review, we trace the trajectories of 12 prominent African indigenous vegetables (AIVs) in tropical America, in order to better understand the diffusion of their culinary and ethnobotanical uses by the African diaspora. The 12 AIVs were selected from African reference works and preliminary reports of their presence in the Americas. Given the importance of each of these vegetables in African diets, our working hypothesis was that the culinary traditions associated with these species would be continued in tropical America by Afro-descendant communities. However, a review of the historical and contemporary literature, and consultation with scholars, shows that the culinary uses of most of these vegetables have been gradually lost. Two noteworthy exceptions include okra ( Abelmoschus esculentus ) and callaloo ( Amaranthus viridis ), although the latter is not the species used in Africa and callaloo has only risen to prominence in Jamaica since the 1960s. Nine of the 12 AIVs found refuge in the African-derived religions Candomblé and Santería, where they remain ritually important. In speculating why these AIVs did not survive in the diets of the New World African diaspora, one has to contemplate the sociocultural, economic, and environmental forces that have shaped—and continue to shape—these foodways and cuisines since the Atlantic slave trade. Since these vegetables are neglected and underutilized species (NUS) that represent the biocultural heritage of the African diaspora in the Americas, their culinary traditions merit intensified scholarly attention and conservation efforts.