Woody plant encroachment (WPE) is transforming grassland ecosystems, with important consequences for carbon sequestration and water balance. This study assessed the long-term impacts of eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana, juniper) encroachment by comparing ecosystem carbon and water fluxes between a mature juniper-dominant woodland and an adjacent tallgrass prairie in the Southern Great Plains, USA. Paired eddy covariance systems (2022-2024) revealed that the juniper woodland was a weaker carbon sink, with a mean annual net ecosystem CO2 exchange (NEE) of-162 g C/m2, compared to-182 g C/m2 in the tallgrass prairie. This occurred despite higher annual gross primary productivity (GPP: 2164 vs. 1475 g C/m2), aboveground net primary productivity (ANPP: 281 vs. 142 g C/m2), and evapotranspiration (ET: 762 vs. 589 mm) of the woodland because WPE increased ecosystem respiration (Re: 2001 vs. 1294 g C/m2). These results suggest a decoupling of water loss from carbon gain in juniper woodlands and underscore the importance of evaluating full ecosystem carbon budgets-beyond aboveground biomass-to guide integrated carbon and water management in a transitional landscape in the prairies.

The bottomland hardwood forests of the south-central United States have long served as feedstock sources for the region’s pulp and paper industries. However, excessive mortality, harvesting/transportation challenges, and heightened demand from the oil and gas industries have negatively impacted hardwood supply chain dynamics in the region. Recent findings show that hybrid sweetgum (Liquidambar formosana x styraciflua) has high potential as a feedstock species, due to its increased specific gravity and productivity when compared to half-sib native sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua). To better understand hybrid sweetgum’s growth and economic potential, we conducted a timber inventory and simulated the growth and yield of multiple hybrid and half-sib native sweetgum stands. The associated land expectation values (LEVs) were calculated for a financial analysis. In addition, a range of management regimes, market scenarios, and discount rates were included to allow for sensitivity analysis. In general, the increased growth rate of the hybrid stands allowed them to excel, despite the higher cost of hybrid seedlings. The hybrid stands produced greater LEVs than the half-sib stands under every combination of management, market, and discount rate. This study found that hybrid sweetgum exhibits greater economic returns, supporting its candidacy as a biomass feedstock for the region. Therefore, this study’s results have important management implications for private landowners, timber companies, and other forestry practitioners in the south-central United States. By confirming the economic viability of hybrid sweetgum, our findings project an optimistic future for the broad acceptance of hybrid sweetgum, particularly among landowners and practitioners across the south-central US. For hybrid sweetgum plantations, prioritizing sawtimber production remains the financially optimal strategy. Finally, providing outreach on silvicultural operations can benefit private landowners and others interested in hybrid sweetgum plantations

The response of forest productivity to drought depends on biodiversity and other stand attributes. Biodiversity can regulate productivity through niche complementarity (i.e. greater diversity better utilizes resources to determine ecosystem functioning) and mass-ratio effects (i.e. dominance drives ecosystem functioning). However, when these forest attributes occur with drought, stress results are mixed. One emerging biodiversity metric is structural diversity, the variation in vegetation size and form. There is a lack of understanding of the interactive effects of structural diversity and drought on forest productivity. Addressing these knowledge gaps can improve the projection of forest dynamics and structural diversity-based management for drought adaptation. We compiled multiple datasets including repeated survey data of 13,059 trees in 299 plots across southcentral US forests stressed by the 2010-2015 drought. We used the Random Forest algorithm to examine how structural diversity and other factors influenced three aspects of productivity measured by above-ground wood biomass: ingrowth, growth, and net change accounting for mortality. Our results showed that (1) Among the eight stand attributes studied, structural diversity was among the top three variables showing the greatest main and interactive effects of drought on forest productivity, except for the interactive effect on ingrowth; (2) The drought-related losses in forest growth and biomass net change were exacerbated in forests with greater structural diversity; (3) Compared with the species and functional diversity metrics, functional identities had greater interactive effects with drought on forest productivity (except for the ingrowth). Synthesis and applications: Productivity losses related to drought increased with greater structural diversity and decreased with functional identities characterized by conservative resource strategies, such as a high leaf carbon-nitrogen ratio. Thus, structural diversity and functional identity could be considered in projecting and managing forest dynamics under climate change. The comparisons between functional identity and the diversity metrics support the important role of the mass-ratio effect in forest productivity during drought.

Background and aims Woody plant encroachment poses a significant threat to grasslands globally, and in the southcentral USA, juniper (Juniperus virginiana) is rapidly taking over large areas of grasslands. Despite ongoing research, the reasons behind the rapid encroachment of juniper species in Oklahoma remain elusive. We hypothesized that the interaction between juniper canopy, aeolian, and wet-deposition processes lead to a modification in trace-element inputs through stemflow and throughfall. This, in turn, plays a crucial role in determining the success of juniper encroachment. Methods We measured the influx of trace-elements in stemflow and throughfall beneath juniper canopies of different sizes, contrasting the results with those obtained under ambient precipitation. Results Our research unveiled a significant influence of the juniper canopy on trace-element inputs via stemflow and throughfall. Specifically, there was a significant increase in manganese, boron, and chlorine inputs, coupled with a decrease in copper inputs. Additionally, there was an increase in most cations and sulfate. Results Our results indicate that juniper encroachment alters the profile of trace-element, cation, and anion inputs beneath their canopies. Increased levels of manganese and reduction of copper inputs into the ecosystem may enhance the juniper growth, creating a positive feedback mechanism that could contribute to the success of juniper and other woody encroachers.

Understanding the relationship between biodiversity and productivity can be advanced by improving metrics used to quantify biodiversity. Structural diversity, that is, variation of size and form of plant organs, is an emerging biodiversity metric. However, compared with the other biodiversity metrics, its relative importance in specific components of forest productivity, for example, recruitment of new individuals, biomass net change after accounting for mortality, is largely unknown, particularly across a large spatial scale with multiple influential gradients. To address the knowledge gap, we used USDA Forest Service Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) data across the southcentral USA from 2008 to 2017. We calculated forest biomass increments due to recruitment and growth and net change in biomass. Then, we quantified the effects of a range of abiotic and biotic variables on the biomass increments and net change. Our results showed that (1) Structural diversity was negatively associated with the two biomass increments and net change in biomass. The negative effects were supported by increased occurrences of insects and diseases with greater structural diversity. (2) Compared with species and functional diversity, structural diversity showed a better association with biomass increments and net change, suggested by its larger absolute values of standardized coefficients, and the effects of structural diversity were negative in contrast to species diversity. (3) The effects of structural diversity, stand age, and elevation differed between natural and planted forests that may stem from the differences in stand development and species composition between the two forest types. Together, structural diversity may represent an important dimension of biodiversity impacts on plant productivity, which could be related to the exacerbated disturbances with greater structural diversity.

AbstractWoody Plant Encroachment (WPE) is a key driver of grassland collapse in the Southern Great Plain (SGP), resulting in a series of adverse ecological and socioeconomic consequences. Climate change will interact with ongoing WPE as it will likely shift the potential ranges of WPE species. In this study, we employed an ensemble approach integrating results from multiple Species Distribution Models to project future distribution ranges of four major WPE species (Ashe juniper, honey mesquite, post oak, and eastern redcedar) in the SGP across the 21st century. The findings highlighted a noteworthy trend: under future climate conditions, the distribution ranges for these WPE species were projected to shift northward and eastward. Of particular concern is honey mesquite with significant expansion in distribution range, potentially covering up to two‐thirds of the SGP's non‐agricultural area by the end of the 21st century. Conversely, the other three WPE species were expected to experience a contraction in their distribution ranges. Ashe juniper may experience a decline in its current habitats in central Texas but gain new habitats in northern Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas. The suitable ranges of post oak and eastern redcedar were projected to shrink eastward, primarily being restricted to eastern portions of Oklahoma and Texas under the RCP4.5 and a smaller area in eastern Oklahoma under the RCP8.5. The projected shift in WPE ranges provides a scientific basis for governments to optimize the allocation of management resources and implement timely practices to control the spread of woody plants during the early encroachment stage. Our study methodology is applicable to other regions and continents with WPE issues, including Africa, South America, and Australia.

Woody species are an important feedstock for biofuel production with several advantages over non-woody species. However, effects of climate change on the suitability of potential biofuel species are still largely unknown, resulting in knowledge gaps in woody biofuel development. We obtained data from 491,550 Forest Inventory Analysis (FIA) plots across the eastern U.S. for four widely distributed woody biofuel species in the southeastern U.S.: Liquidambar styraciflua, Pinus taeda, Platanus occidentalis, and Populus deltoides. We used multiple algorithms modeling climate impacts (i.e., temperature and precipitation) on distributions of these species also considering effects of soil and elevation. Moreover, suitable ranges of the species were projected under moderate (RCP 2.6) and severe (RCP 8.5) climate change. Our results showed that: (1) the distributions of most species were more sensitive to mean annual temperature than to the other factors examined. (2) The patterns of occurrence along climate gradients varied in shape and optimum climate ranges across the four species. (3) The current high suitability of loblolly pine in the southeastern U.S. was projected to decrease in the future warming climate, while other regions showed increasing suitability, however not to the levels currently observed across its current range. (4) For the other species, their suitability was projected to increase with changing climate, but the increased suitability of some areas was limited in the scenario of severe climate change. Thus, species-specific responses to changing climate in different regions could inform species and site selection for biofuel plantations and facilitate policymaking to adopt climate mitigation strategies.

Sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) is an excellent short-rotation woody crop species for producing hardwood pulp and biofuel feedstock on marginal sites. A recent development which may improve growth is the production of hybrid sweetgum (L. formosana x styraciflua) clones. We compared the productivity and attributes, e.g., wood specific gravity and stand growth, of operational plantations of hybrid sweetgum clones to improved native sweetgum half-sib families in 36 stands in Oklahoma, Texas, and Louisiana, U.S. The least square means (LSMean) of wood specific gravity was significantly greater for hybrids clones than the half-sibs (0.49 vs. 0.46 g/cm3), and the hybrid clones had less taper which necessitated developing genotype-specific volume and biomass equations. Despite having less fertilizer inputs on average, the hybrids had greater standing green stem biomass than the half-sibs at an age of 8.5 years (LSMean of 73.3 vs. 51.9 Mg/ha). The hybrids as a group also exhibited greater green biomass growth during the 2022 growing season when compared to the half-sibs at 8.5 years (LSMean of 15.8 vs. 11.4 Mg/ha/y). Therefore, the hybrids provide growth and wood quality advantages that may provide an opportunity to increase productivity and profitability of hardwood SRWC plantings.

Hybrid sweetgum has potential as a dual-purpose plantation in the southern United States due to its rapid growth and suitability for planting on a wide range of sites. To understand its social acceptability, a survey instrument was administered among 3,000 private landowners in the states of Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, and Arkansas. The survey results showed that a considerable percentage of landowners (41 %) were uncertain and would probably benefit from more information available to them on the topic. A multinomial logit analysis found that landowners who had timber management objectives were more interested in growing hybrid sweetgum if it was profitable and practically feasible. Similarly, female landowners and those having higher education were found to be more interested in growing hybrid sweetgum. Study findings suggest a need for outreach on economic feasibility, management, start-up costs, and tax implications concerning hybrid sweetgum plantations.

Bark beetle outbreaks frequently kill large areas of loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda). Resin production is the main defense against these insects and resin duct metrics and areas are correlated with both resin flow and tree survival post bark beetle attack. Whether the number, area, or size of resin ducts is increase when trees grow faster or whether there is a tradeoff between tree growth and resin ducts is currently debated. We determined the impacts of water availability (ambient vs 30 % throughfall reduction), nutrient availability (fertilized vs non- fertilized), and thinning on vertical resin duct count (ducts per 5 mm strip of annual ring), density (ducts mm- 2 ), area (duct area per 5 mm strip of annual ring), relative area (% duct area per ring), and average duct size (mm- 2 ) in planted stands of loblolly pine (ages 6-13) in southeastern Oklahoma. Fertilization increased diameter growth (10 %) and metrics that scale to ring width, i.e., duct count (15 %) and duct area (22 %), but also duct relative area (8 %). Throughfall exclusion decreased diameter growth and duct count in some years, increased duct density, and reduced duct average size (8 %). The net effect was that fertilized stands with ambient water availability had the greatest resource availability among treatments in this study and had the greatest duct count, duct area, and duct relative area as well as average duct size greater than the throughfall exclusion treatments. During the post thinning period, i.e., ages 10-13, thinning increased diameter growth from 9.63 to 12.05 mm year- 1 , duct count from 9.69 to 12.22, duct area from 0.384 to 0.514 mm2, duct relative area from 1.67 % to 1.84 %, and average duct size from 0.0396 to 0.0428 mm2. Earlywood composed approximately 2/3 of the annual ring, but latewood had almost 5 times greater duct density such that there were more ducts and greater duct areas in the latewood. Our assessment of duct metrics provides a link between tree growth rate, resource availability, and duct metrics associated with resistance to bark beetles. Therefore, silvicultural practices used to increase tree growth likely also increase resistance to bark beetles.

The increase of tree canopy cover due to woody plant encroachment and tree plantations modifies both carbon and water dynamics. The tradeoffs between ecosystem net primary productivity (NPP) and water use with increasing tree cover in different climate conditions, particularly under future climate scenarios, are not well understood. Within the climate transition zone of the southern Great Plains, USA, we used the Soil and Water Assessment Tool+ (SWAT+) to investigate the combined impacts of increasing tree cover and climate change on carbon and water dynamics in three watersheds representing semiarid, subhumid, and humid climates. Model simulations incorporated two land use modifications (Baseline: existing tree cover; Forest +: increasing evergreen tree cover), in conjunction with two climate change projections (the RCP45 and the RCP85), spanning two time periods (historic: 1991-2020; future: 2070-2099). With climate change, the subhumid and humid watersheds exhibited a greater increase in evapotranspiration (ET) and a corresponding reduction in runoff compared to the semi-arid watershed, while the semi-arid and subhumid watersheds encountered pronounced losses in water availability for streams (>200 mm/year) due to increasing tree cover and climate change. With every 1 % increase in tree cover, both NPP and water use efficiency were projected to increase in all three watersheds under both climate change scenarios, with the subhumid watershed demonstrating the largest increases (>0.16 Mg/ha/year and 170 %, respectively). Increasing tree cover within grasslands, either through woody plant expansion or afforestation, boosts ecosystem NPP, particularly in subhumid regions. Nevertheless, this comes with a notable decrease in water resources, a concern made worse by future climate change. While afforestation offers the potential for greater NPP, it also brings heightened water scarcity concerns, highlighting the importance of tailoring carbon sequestration strategies within specific regions to mitigate unintended repercussions on water availability.

Eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana, redcedar) is a major woody species encroaching upon the native grasslands and forests of the southern Great Plains (SGP), representing a significant threat to regional ecosystem services. Future climate change is anticipated to influence redcedar habitat suitability, changing the probability of further encroachment and reshaping its spatial distribution. In this study, we trained seven Species Distribution Models (SDMs) with redcedar records from the USDA Forest Inventory Analysis database and used the ensemble of these SDMs to simulate redcedar distribution probability under current and future climate conditions in Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Results reveal a distinct east-to-west gradient of decreasing distribution probability in the study domain, primarily driven by climate aridity. Throughout the 21st century, the optimal range of aridity for redcedar habitat is projected to shift eastwards by 0.7 degrees (approximate to 58 km) under the RCP45 climate scenario and 1.3 degrees (approximate to 108 km) under the RCP85. Accordingly, the suitable habitat will shift eastward by 0.6 degrees (approximate to 49 km) in the RCP45 and by 1.2 degrees (approximate to 103 km) in the RCP85. The proportion of unsuitable habitat will increase from 40.2 % of the study domain during 2000 - 2019 to 48 % in the RCP45 and 54.2 % in the RCP85 during 2080 - 2099. Additionally, highly suitable land areas will decrease from 10.4 % of the study domain during 2000 - 2019 to 1.3 % in the RCP45 and 0 % in the RCP85 by the end of this century. This study suggests a low likelihood of further redcedar encroachment in the west of the SGP states under future climates, while anticipating continued expansion in the east, gradually replacing the existing oak forests and rangelands. The findings provide valuable insights for prioritizing WPE management resources and contribute to our understanding of future changes in the SGP vegetation composition and their impacts on ecosystem dynamics.

Hybrid sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua x L. formosana) has received considerable attention as a potential feedstock for traditional and nontraditional forest-based enterprises due to its fast growth and large specific gravity. However, the perceptions of landowners are important to understand the degree of acceptance concerning land use change to consider this opportunity in the United States. We administered a survey instrument to three thousand landowners representing the states of Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, and Arkansas where hybrid sweetgum plantations would be feasible. A seemingly unrelated regression analysis was used to explore the attributes that may influence the environmental and economic obstacles in land use change for hybrid sweetgum plantations. Study results suggest that landowners who perceived higher importance of marketing aspects of hybrid sweetgum expressed greater economic concerns for land use change. In contrast, those having higher planted pine acres had higher environmental concerns about land use change. Female landowners were more concerned than their male counterparts. Landowners need access to accurate information from their trusted sources to make informed management decisions, especially when making decisions to adopt new opportunities such as hybrid sweetgum.Study Implications: Study results reveal the need for outreach to landowners in the south central United States, as many were not aware of fast-growing hardwood species such as hybrid sweetgum. Information on growth potential, economics, and management techniques can help facilitate the adoption of hybrid sweetgum. Field visits and peer-to-peer learning facilitated by early adopters can be effective strategies for outreach.

Deer hunting has cultural and economic benefits in the United States. Actively managing land for deer hunting can improve a wide range of ecosystem services as well as generate revenue for landowners. We used a 1) best-worst choice model to study hunter preferences for hunting site characteristics, and 2) a conjoint, discrete choice analysis to estimate willingness to pay (WTP) to lease deer hunting sites. In this site valuation study, important site attributes included were food plots, forest canopy cover, deer observed per visit, and deer sanctuary. We ranked attributed and estimated WTP for hunting site characteristics based on deer hunters’ choice preferences. Deer hunters were willing to pay more for hunting sites that provide a high-quality hunting experience and the opportunity to observe a more deer. Deer hunters were willing to pay more to use hunting sites with food plots and deer sanctuaries, because these attributes increase the likelihood of observing deer. The importance of forest canopy cover and deer sanctuary in quality deer habitat, however, were less important determinants, which suggests the need for outreach programs.

The Arkansas River and its tributaries provide critical water resources for agricultural irrigation, hydropower generation, and public water supply in the Arkansas River Basin (ARB). However, climate change and other environmental factors have imposed significant impacts on regional hydrological processes, resulting in wide-spread ecological and economic consequences. In this study, we projected future river flow patterns in the 21st century across the entire ARB under two climate and socio-economic change scenarios (i.e., SSP2-RCP45 and SSP5-RCP85) using the process-based Dynamic Land Ecosystem Model (DLEM). We designed "baseline simula-tions" (all driving factors were kept constant at the level circa 2000) and "environmental change simulations" (at least one driving factor changed over time during 2001-2099) to simulate the inter-annual variations of river flow and quantify the contributions of four driving factors (i.e., climate change, CO2 concentration, atmospheric nitrogen deposition, and land use change). Results showed that the Arkansas River flow in 2080-2099 would decrease by 12.1% in the SSP2-RCP45 and 27.9% in the SSP5-RCP85 compared to that during 2000-2019. River flow decline would occur from the beginning to the middle of this century in the SSP2-RCP45 and happen throughout the entire century in the SSP5-RCP85. All major rivers in the ARB would experience river flow decline with the largest percentage reduction in the western and southwestern ARB. Warming and drying cli-mates would account for 77%-95% of the reduction. The rising CO2 concentration would exacerbate the decline through increasing foliage area and ecosystem evapotranspiration. This study provides insight into the spatial patterns of future changes in water availability in the ARB and the underlying mechanisms controlling these changes. This information is critical for designing watershed-specific management strategies to maintain regional water resource sustainability and mitigate the adverse impacts of climate changes on water availability.

Bacterial contamination of surface water is a public health concern. To quantify the efflux of Escherichia coli into ephemeral and intermittent streams and assess its numbers in relation to secondary body contact standards, we monitored runoff and measured E. coli numbers from 10 experimental watersheds that differed in vegetation cover and cattle access in north-central Oklahoma. Escherichia coli numbers were not significantly different among the watersheds, with one exception; the grazed prairie watershed (GP1) had greater numbers compared to one ungrazed prairie watershed (UP2). Median E. coli numbers in runoff from ungrazed watersheds ranged from 260 to 1482 MPN/100 mL in comparison with grazed watersheds that ranged from 320 to 8878 MPN/100 mL. In the GP1 watershed, higher cattle stocking rates during pre- and post-calving (February-May) resulted in significantly greater bacterial numbers and event loading compared to periods with lower stocking rates. The lack of significance among watersheds is likely due to the grazed sites being rotationally (and lightly) grazed, data variability, and wildlife contributions. To address wildlife sources, we used camera trap data to assess the usage in the watersheds; however, the average number of animals in a 24-h period did not correlate with observed median E. coli numbers. Because of its impacts on E. coli numbers in water, grazing management (stocking rate, rotation, and timing) should be considered for improving water quality in streams and reservoirs.

Active management such as prescribed fire and thinning can restore savanna and prairie ecosystem to maintain a full suite of ecosystem services and create suitable habitat for wildlife species such as white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Active management comes with the cost of management and acceptance of management tools. The south-central transitional ecoregion of the USA, which otherwise was a mixture of forest, savanna, and tallgrass prairie, is increasing in woody plant dominance due to the exclusion of fire and other anthropogenic factors. Deer hunting is a vital source of revenue generation to offset the landowner's management cost in the region. We studied Oklahoma landowners' perceptions regarding active and sustainable management of forest and rangeland for deer habitat using two established theories of reasoned action and planned behavior as well as expanded theories adding moral norms. We analyzed mailed survey data using structural equation modeling. We found that subjective norms and perceived behavior control significantly affected deer hunting intention when moral norms were introduced into the model. Attitudes independently significantly affected intentions of deer hunting but have negative relations with the intentions. The study suggested that landowners have positive social pressure and were interested in active management but associated financial burden and risk could be shaping negative attitudes.

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) hunting is an important economic activity associated with the management of forests and rangelands in the USA, with over $12.9 billion dollars of related annual expenditures. Reducing tree cover through thinning and prescribed fire both have the potential to increase the quantity and quality of deer forage. We evaluated the long-term impacts of eight different combinations of fire return intervals and tree harvest on forage productivity and protein content of the forage. Based on management regime, study units ranged from savanna to closed-canopy forest. Aboveground net primary production (ANPP) of six functional groups (grass, panicum, forb, legume, woody, sedge) of understory vegetation was measured in October 2019 and 2020 using destructive sampling. Samples for foliar crude protein (CP) concentration were collected in spring, summer, and fall of 2020. Total understory ANPP ranged from 2.9 to 466.3 g m- 2 and was up to 566% greater in savanna systems maintained by frequent fire (return interval of three years or less) than in non-burned forest treatments. Annual burning resulted in ANPP dominated by herbaceous plants composed mostly of firetolerant grasses (e.g., Andropogon gerardii, Schizachyrium scoparium). Longer fire return intervals or no fire resulted in roughly equal ANPP from understory woody and herbaceous species. Crude protein concentrations were up to 45.7% greater in the woodland and forest units than in the savanna units for seven of the eleven species sampled. The greater CP in the forests was most noticeable in the summer when deer needs for quality forage are substantial. Increased protein concentrations of understory species in the forests, but greater ANPP in the savannas indicate that managing for a mix of savanna and woodland could be ideal for balancing forage quantity with increased forage protein.

Forest-grassland ecotones are a mosaic of grassland, savanna, and upland forest. As such, landowners may have opportunities to choose to manage their lands for multiple objectives. We estimated the economic returns from managing forest and rangeland in southeastern Oklahoma, USA to produce different combinations of timber, cattle forage, and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus Zimmermann) browse for a 40-year period. We further conducted a survey to understand landowner perceptions of obstacles to adopting active management that involve timber harvest and prescribed fire. The highest net return was obtained from the treatment with harvested timber that was burned every four years (uneven-aged woodland/forest) because it had the greatest gross return from a combination of timber (46%), cattle forage (42%), and deer browse (11%). The return from this treatment was greater than that for managed for timber only (closed-canopy forest) or prioritizing cattle and deer (savanna). Survey results suggested that landowners were aware of the benefits of active management but that the majority (66%) considered cost a major obstacle in the management of their forest or rangeland. In particular, women forestland owners and older landowners considered cost an obstacle. Our findings advocate integrated timber, cattle, and deer management as the best economic strategy within the forest-grassland ecotone and for targeted outreach and landowner education related to the benefits of active management.