BACKGROUND:There is no description of comparative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and fan-beam computed tomography (CT) findings in the fetlock of lame sports horses. OBJECTIVES:To document low-field MRI and fan-beam CT diagnoses in the lame and nonlame limbs of sports horses with fetlock region pain, and to evaluate whether combined imaging provides superior information to either technique alone. STUDY DESIGN:Retrospective descriptive study. METHODS:Clinical records of sports horses with pain causing lameness localised to the metacarpo/metatarsophalangeal joint region that had undergone fan-beam CT and low-field MRI were reviewed. Images of both lame and nonlame contralateral limbs were assessed subjectively. RESULTS:Images of 52 limbs (lame n = 31, nonlame n = 21) were analysed. In 16 lame limbs of 13 horses, the most significant abnormality was in the subchondral and trabecular bone of the proximal phalanx (sagittal groove n = 14, medial fovea n = 1, sagittal groove and medial fovea n = 1). All had hyperintense STIR signal that was more extensive than CT abnormalities; CT provided useful information in all limbs. In five lame limbs, the most significant lesion was in the metacarpal condyle(s): an incomplete fracture (n = 1) or resorptive lesions (n = 4); the fracture and two resorptive lesions were not detected using MRI. In nine limbs of eight horses, lesions in multiple locations possibly contributed to pain. In one limb, abnormalities in the medial proximal sesamoid bone and in the palmar ligament were the main findings. MAIN LIMITATIONS:Small numbers of limbs with specific abnormalities. Comprehensive imaging of the contralateral limb was not performed in all horses. Absence of follow-up information. CONCLUSIONS:Fan-beam CT and low-field MRI provided complementary information and yielded diagnoses and conclusions in some horses that could not have been achieved when using one modality only. Resorptive subchondral bone lesions in the fetlock may be present without associated low-field MRI abnormalities.

Metacarpophalangeal joint region pain is a common cause of lameness in racehorses. Radiological abnormalities in the sagittal ridge (SR) of the third metacarpal bone have been associated with joint effusion, lameness and reduced sales prices. The aims were to describe computed tomographic (CT) appearance of the SR in racehorses, and to document the progression of these findings over three assessments. Forty yearlings were enrolled at the first examination (time 0). Re-examinations were performed twice, approximately six months apart on 31 (time 1) and 23 (time 2) horses, respectively. Computed tomographic examinations of both metacarpophalangeal regions were performed with the horses in a standing position. Computed tomographic reconstructions were analysed subjectively and objectively. The mean Hounsfield Unit values (Hus) of eight radial segments and location, size and shape of hypoattenuating lesions were recorded. Mean Hus at time 1 were higher than at time 0. There was no difference between mean HU at times 1 and 2. The mean HU values of the dorsal half were higher in the right forelimbs and in fillies. Hypoattenuation was identified in 33/80 (41.3%) limbs at time 0, in 22/62 (35.5%) limbs at time 1 and in 14/46 (30.4%) limbs at time 2. All hypoattenuations were located in the dorsodistal aspect of the SR. The most common shapes were hypoattenuating lesions elongated proximodistally and those extending towards trabecular bone. An increase in attenuation of the SR occurred in the first six months of training. Hypoattenuating lesions could decrease in size and could resolve during early training. In this population, these lesions were not associated with lameness.

Radiological observations at the cervicothoracic junction in horses with or without related clinical signs have not been comprehensively described. The aim was to evaluate the seventh cervical (C7) to second thoracic (T2) vertebrae in horses with neck-related clinical signs (neck pain and/or stiffness, neck-related forelimb lameness, or general proprioceptive [spinal] ataxia) and control horses. This prospective analytical cross-sectional study included 127 control horses and 96 cases, examined using standardized clinical and radiological protocols. Univariable logistic regression was used to calculate odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) to identify factors associated with radiological abnormalities. Severe modeling of the articular processes at C7-T1 was more likely in cases compared with controls, OR, 4.25; CI, 1.04-17.36; P = .04. Cases were more likely to have spondylolisthesis at C7-T1 than controls, OR, 3.61; CI, 1.75-7.44; P < .001. There was a lack of uniformity of disc space width at C6-C7, despite normal alignment of the vertebrae, in five (5.2%) cases and no control horses. Discospondylosis was seen in 9 (9.4%) horses at C7-T1 and 10 of 64 (15.6%) at T1-T2. The sagittal ratio for T1 was smaller for horses with neck-related forelimb lameness (P < .0002), neck pain/ stiffness (P = .04), or neurological cases (P < .001) than controls. The prevalence of radiological abnormalities at C7-T1 and T1-T2 highlights the importance of careful evaluation of the cervicothoracic junction in horses with neck-related signs.

Abstract Background Detailed descriptions of clinical signs associated with radiological findings of the caudal cervical vertebral column are not available. Objectives/Hypotheses Describe the clinical features associated with neck pain or stiffness, neck‐related thoracic limb lameness, proprioceptive ataxia consistent with a cervicothoracic spinal cord or nerve lesion, and their frequency of occurrence compared with control horses. Animals A total of 223 Warmblood horses. Methods Case‐control study. Controls and cases were recruited prospectively. All horses underwent predetermined lameness and neurologic examinations. The frequency of occurrence of each clinical feature was compared between cases and controls and relative risk (RR) were calculated. Results Ninety‐six cases and 127 controls were included. Forty‐seven (49%) of the cases were classified as neurologic, 31 (32.3%) had thoracic limb lameness, and 18 (18.7%) had neck stiffness or pain or both. Focal caudal cervical muscle atrophy (46, 47.9%), hypoesthesia (38, 39.6%), patchy sweating (16, 16.7%), hyperesthesia (11, 11.5%), and pain upon firm pressure applied over the caudal cervical articular process joints and transverse processes (58, 60.4%) were only observed in cases (P < .001). Sideways flexion of the neck was restricted in a higher proportion of cases (47/96, 49%) compared with controls (40/127, 31.8%; P = .009, RR 1.5). Hopping‐type thoracic limb lameness was only observed in cases, (30, 31.6%). Deterioration in lameness after diagnostic anesthesia occurred in 13/31 (41.9%) cases. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Systematic clinical evaluation using the methods described should enable clinical differentiation between horses with caudal cervical lesions and horses with other causes of gait abnormalities.

There is a limited description of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and no information on computed tomographic (CT) findings in the fetlock of non-lame, non-racing sports horses. This study aimed to document comparative CT, MRI and radiographic findings in the metacarpophalangeal joints of showjumpers in full work. Clinical and gait assessments, low-field MRI, fan-beam CT and radiographic examinations of both metacarpophalangeal joints were performed on 31 showjumpers. Images were analysed descriptively. In most limbs (53/62, 85.5%), there were CT and MRI changes consistent with densification in the sagittal ridge and/or condyles of the third metacarpal bone (McIII). Hypoattenuation (subchondral bone resorption) was seen in CT reconstructions in the metacarpal condyle dorsoproximally (n = 2) and dorsodistally (n = 1), in the sagittal groove (n = 2) and medial fovea (n = 1) of the proximal phalanx. The McIII resorptive lesions were detected on MR images but not the proximal phalanx lesions. None were identified on radiographs. In conclusion, MRI and CT abnormalities previously associated with lameness were seen in the front fetlocks of showjumpers without relevant lameness. Densification in the sagittal ridge and the metacarpal condyles likely reflects an adaptive change to exercise. Subchondral bone resorption may indicate an early stage of disease; follow-up information is needed to establish its clinical significance.

BACKGROUND:There is controversy about the clinical relevance of congenital variants of the ventral laminae of the sixth (C6) and seventh (C7) cervical vertebrae and their relationship with other radiological abnormalities. OBJECTIVES:To document the prevalence of congenital variants of C6 and C7 and that of other radiological abnormalities from C6 to the second thoracic vertebra (T2). STUDY DESIGN:Cross-sectional. METHODS:The study included Warmblood horses ≥3 years of age undergoing clinical assessment at two referral institutions: 127 control horses and 96 cases (neurologic, neck pain or stiffness, or neck-related forelimb lameness). All horses underwent a standardised orthopaedic and neurologic examination. Lateral-lateral and lateral 45°-55° ventral-lateral dorsal (left to right and right to left) radiographic views of C5 to T2 were acquired and assessed blinded to the horse's clinical category using a predetermined grading system. RESULTS:The ventral profile of C7 was abnormal in 54 horses (24.2%). Cases were less likely to have congenital variants than control horses, p = 0.0002, relative risk (RR): 0.63 (95% confidence intervals [CIs]: 0.4, 1.0). There was no association between the presence of a congenital variant of C7 and the presence of modelling of the articular processes (APs) of C6-C7, C7-T1 or T1-T2. Cases were more likely to have severe modelling of the APs at C6-C7, p = 0.01, RR: 1.94, CI: 1.1, 3.5 and C7-T1, p = 0.04, RR: 1.97, CI: 1.2, 3.2 compared with control horses. MAIN LIMITATIONS:Radiographs were read by one assessor independently at each institution. CONCLUSIONS:There was no association between the presence of congenital variants of C7 and any other radiological findings. Congenital variants occurred less frequently in cases compared with control horses. There was no association between the presence or absence of a congenital variant and the type of case.

The Ridden Horse Pain Ethogram (RHpE) was developed to facilitate the identification of musculoskeletal pain. The aim of the current study was to collate behavioural data using the RHpE from horses at competitions assumed by their owners and/or riders to be fit for competition. The objectives were to quantify the frequency of occurrence of behaviours in pain-free horses and those with lameness or abnormalities of canter and to determine any differences between disciplines and levels of competition. The RHpE was applied to 1358 horses competing in Grand Prix (GP) dressage (n = 211), 5* three-day events (TDE) (n = 137), or low-level one-day events (ODE) (n = 1010). The median RHpE score for all horses was 4 (interquartile range [IQR] 2, 5; range 0, 12) and the median lameness grade was 0 (IQR 0, 1; range 0, 4). The Kruskal–Wallis test, followed by Dunn’s test for pairwise comparisons, found a difference in median RHpE scores between low-level ODE and GP dressage (p = 0.001), but not between 5* TDE and low-level ODE (p = 0.09) or between GP dressage and 5* TDE (p = 1.00). The median RHpE score was highest for low-level ODE. The Chi-square/Fisher’s exact test identified a significant difference in prevalence of most of the 24 behaviours of the RHpE in non-lame compared with lame horses. Recognition of the behaviours of non-lame horses may improve equine welfare and performance, and rider comfort, confidence, and safety.

The Ridden Horse Pain Ethogram (RHpE) was developed to facilitate the recognition of musculoskeletal pain. The aim of this study was to document changes in RHpE scores before and after diagnostic anaesthesia was performed to alleviate pain ± when the saddle was changed. One hundred and fifty horses underwent ridden exercise as part of an investigation of poor performance. The RHpE was applied before and after the interventions. Fifty-two (34.7%) horses exhibited a bilaterally symmetrical short step length and/or restricted hindlimb impulsion and engagement. Fifty-three (35.3%) horses had episodic lameness; only forty-five (30.0%) horses were continuously lame. The median maximum lameness grade when ridden was 2/8 (interquartile range [IQR]: 0-3; range: 0-4). Fifty-six (37.3%) horses had an ill-fitting saddle, which was considered likely to influence performance. The median RHpE scores after the interventions (2/24 [IQR: 1-3, range: 0-12]) were significantly lower than before the interventions (9/24 [IQR: 8-11, range: 2-15]) (Wilcoxon signed-rank z = 10.6, p < 0.001). There was no correlation between the RHpE score and maximum lameness grade before diagnostic anaesthesia (Spearman's rho = 0.09, p = 0.262). It was concluded that the absence of overt lameness does not preclude primary musculoskeletal pain. Gait quality and performance can be improved by diagnostic anaesthesia, with substantial reductions in RHpE scores.

BACKGROUND:There are no detailed data on complications of sacroiliac (SI) joint region injections or on the variability of the methods and circumstances of injections among clinicians. OBJECTIVES:To describe complications following diagnostic, therapeutic and combined SI joint region injections and the details of how these are routinely performed by a large number of clinicians. STUDY DESIGN:Cross-sectional questionnaire survey. METHODS:Clinicians (members of American and European specialist colleges and veterinarians known to the authors), invited by email, who had performed ≥1 SI joint region injection, completed an online questionnaire. Data collected included the clinicians' experience in diagnostic, therapeutic and combined SI joint region injections, details of the injection technique, volume and substance used, and the type of complications seen following SI joint region anaesthesia, medications and combined injections, respectively. Descriptive data analysis was performed and the association between any complications seen and the clinicians' experience, technique, volume and substance used were assessed using binary logistic regression. RESULTS:Of the 212 respondents, 110 had performed diagnostic, 187 therapeutic and 49 combined injections. More clinicians experienced complications after diagnostic (53/110) than after therapeutic (33/187) or combined (6/49) injections (p < 0.01). The most common complications were hindlimb weakness/ataxia after all types of injections (diagnostic: 44/110, 40%, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 30.8-49.8; therapeutic: 15/187, 8.0%, CI: 4.6-12.9; combined: 2/49, 4.1%, CI: 0.5-14.0). Death or horses requiring euthanasia were reported (after therapeutic injections: 5/187; diagnostic injections: 1/110). MAIN LIMITATIONS:No prevalence of complications was established; no detailed descriptions of complications were available. Results may be influenced by selection and recall biases. CONCLUSIONS:Complications were experienced by more clinicians following diagnostic injections than after therapeutic or combined SI joint region injections, but the types and distribution of complications were similar. Results should be interpreted considering the previous reports of low prevalence of complications.

Most catastrophic injuries in Thoroughbred racehorses involve the fetlock. There is no description of comparative imaging in Thoroughbreds entering racehorse training. The aim was to describe MRI, CT and radiographic findings in the metacarpophalangeal joint of non-lame Thoroughbred yearlings. Forty Thoroughbreds underwent low-field MRI, fan-beam CT and radiographic examinations of both metacarpophalangeal joints. Images were assessed subjectively. A hypoattenuating lesion of the sagittal ridge of the third metacarpal bone (McIII) was identified in 33/80 limbs in CT reconstructions. Cone-shaped mineralisation in the sagittal ridge was detected in MR images (n = 17) and in CT images (n = 5). Mild hyperattenuation was common in trabecular bone in the dorsomedial (36/80) and palmarolateral (25/80) metacarpal condyles in CT reconstructions. A focal lesion in the subchondral bone was seen in the proximal phalanx (n = 19) and in McIII (n = 11). Enlarged vascular channels were detected in the metacarpal condyles in 57/80 limbs and in the proximal sesamoid bones in all limbs. Signs of bone modelling are seen in yearling Thoroughbred fetlocks. Sagittal ridge lesions were common and are likely associated with osteochondrosis or other developmental osteochondral defects. Focal lesions in the subchondral bone of McIII and proximal phalanx can indicate developmental abnormalities or subtle subchondral bone injuries.

Proximal metacarpal injury is common in endurance horses, yet exercise-induced changes in this region have not been described. This study aimed to document objective exercise-induced changes in the proximal palmar cortex of the third metacarpal bone (PcMcIII) and the suspensory ligament (SL). Low-field magnetic resonance (MR) images of both proximal metacarpal regions were obtained from six novice and six experienced horses, before and after six months of endurance training. Measurements were acquired in T1-weighted transverse MR images at four levels and included the thickness of the PcMcIII, the mediolateral width, and the dorsopalmar depth of the entire SL and its lobes. We used t-tests or their nonparametric equivalents to compare the measurements from the two examinations and both novice and experienced horses. The medial aspect of PcMcIII was significantly thicker in experienced horses than in novice horses at 2 and 3 cm distal to the carpometacarpal joint. This likely reflects the cumulative effect of long-term exercise and possibly age. The PcMcIII was significantly thicker medially than laterally. There was no significant difference between pre- and post-season measurements. Six months of endurance training were not sufficient to induce changes in the thickness of PcMcIII or the SL that are detectable in low-field MR images.

Summary Background A disturbing number of ridden horses are lame, although assumed by riders to be pain free. A Ridden Horse Pain Ethogram (RHpE) was developed; an RHpE score of ≥8/24 is likely to indicate the presence of musculoskeletal pain. Pain assessment in Icelandic horses is challenging; the RHpE may facilitate lameness recognition. Objectives To determine the repeatability of application of an adapted RHpE to Icelandic horses by a single observer. To evaluate the relationship between RHpE scores and lameness or abnormalities of canter. Study design Prospective, cross‐sectional study. Methods Video‐recordings of 30 Icelandic horses performing a standardised test (walk, trot, tölt, canter) were acquired. The adapted RHpE, to include tölt, was applied to all recordings twice in random order by a single observer. Agreement was assessed using Cohen's kappa. The presence of lameness, abnormalities of canter and lameness grade was determined by an independent expert. The association between maximum lameness grade and RHpE score was tested using Spearman's rank correlation. Results All horses exhibited both lameness, the majority in >1 limb, and abnormalities of canter. The RHpE score was ≥8/24 in 96% (median 10/24 and 10.5/24, respectively, for the two assessments). There was substantial to near‐perfect agreement for the majority of behaviours (63.6%) and moderate or fair agreement for 32%. There was no correlation between maximum lameness grades and RHpE scores. Main limitations The absence of non‐lame horses with correct saddle fit for horse and rider. Conclusions There was good repeatability of application of the RHpE. Musculoskeletal pain was associated with RHpE scores of ≥8/24 in the majority of horses. Data acquired from non‐lame horses, ridden in well‐fitting tack by riders of appropriate size, are needed to determine if the threshold of step frequency in trot needs to be adjusted for more accurate application of the RHpE in Icelandic horses.

SummaryBackgroundCauses of abnormal behaviour during tacking‐up or mounting are multifactorial, but may be associated with an ill‐fitting saddle, a rider sitting on the caudal third of the saddle, or lameness.ObjectivesTo determine whether: (1) owners believed their horse showed abnormal behaviour when tacked‐up or mounted; (2) this agreed with observations by a veterinarian.Study designCross‐sectional study; convenience sample.MethodsHorses were undergoing prepurchase examinations, investigation of poor performance, or were recruited by invitation. Owners were asked if their horse showed abnormal behaviour when tacked‐up or mounted and subsequently whether they showed specific behaviours (yes/no) during bridling, saddling, girthing and mounting. Each horse was observed during tacking‐up and mounting by one veterinarian who recorded the occurrence of each behaviour. Agreement between the owners and the veterinarian was evaluated using intraclass correlation (ICC) coefficients with 95% confidence intervals (CI).ResultsOverall 34.2% (66/193) of owners reported that their horse showed behavioural abnormalities during tacking‐up or mounting. There was poor to good agreement between the owners and veterinarian for horses putting their head up to avoid bridling (ICC 0.53, CI 0.37, 0.64) and being reluctant to open their mouth for the bit (ICC 0.52, CI 0.36, 0.64). There was poor to fair agreement for evading noseband tightening (ICC 0.41, CI 0.21, 0.56), elevating the head (ICC 0.24, CI 0.00, 0.43) and teeth grinding (ICC 0.23, CI 0.00, 0.42). For attempts to bite, there was fair to excellent agreement during saddling (ICC 0.67, CI 0.56, 0.75) and good to excellent agreement during girthing (ICC 0.73, CI 0.64, 0.79). Results for some behaviours suggested potential systematic disagreement between the veterinarian and owners.Main limitationsPotential bias of volunteers recruited by invitation. Day‐to‐day variation of behaviours is unknown.ConclusionsThe majority of owners were unaware that their horses showed behavioural abnormalities during tacking‐up or mounting.

SummaryBackgroundThe Ridden Horse Pain Ethogram (RHpE) was developed to facilitate identification of musculoskeletal pain.ObjectivesTo determine the influence of rider skill on ridden horse performance and behaviour, the latter using the RHpE. It was hypothesised that gait quality at trot and canter would improve with a more skilled rider compared with a less skilled rider, but the RHpE scores would be similar.Study designRepeated measures investigation.MethodsForty horses, in regular work and presumed by their riders to be nonlame, were ridden by their normal rider (N) and a skilled professional rider (P), performing a dressage‐type test over 8.5 min. Twenty horses were ridden first by rider P, and 20 were ridden first by rider N. The presence of lameness or gait abnormalities in canter was recorded. Standardised video recordings were acquired. All videos were anonymised and presented in random order to the assessors. Rider skill and horse gait quality were graded (Fédération Equestre Internationale scale, 1–10), and the RHpE was applied to each horse using the video recordings.ResultsRider P had a higher median skill score (6/10) compared with the N riders (4.5/10) (P<0.001). There was a correlation between rider skill scores and gait quality scores (P<0.001). The presence of lameness or gait abnormalities in canter, when ridden by riders N and P, varied among horses. The median RHpE score for all horses was 9/24 (range 3–14). There was no difference in mean or median RHpE scores between the N riders and rider P. There was some variance in the frequency of occurrence of specific behaviours between the N riders and rider P.Main limitationsThe identity of rider P could not be concealed.ConclusionsThere was no direct relationship between rider skill level and the RHpE score, but riders did alter the manifestations of some behaviours.

SummaryBackgroundReasons for abnormal behaviour during tacking‐up and mounting are poorly documented.ObjectivesTo relate behavioural abnormalities during tacking‐up or mounting to epaxial muscle hypertonicity or pain, girth region hypersensitivity, ill‐fitting tack, rider position and balance, or equine musculoskeletal pain.Study designProspective observational study; convenience sample of 193 horses.MethodsThe behaviour of horses in a stable or tied up was observed for ≥8 min before systematic palpation of the thoracolumbosacral and girth regions. Owners were asked to tack‐up and mount using their normal regime. A purpose‐designed protocol for assessment of behaviour during tacking‐up and mounting was applied. Lameness was evaluated in‐hand and during ridden exercise. Static and dynamic saddle‐fit were assessed. A static saddle‐fit score was the sum of any saddle‐fit abnormality. Rider position in the saddle, balance and size relative to the saddle were evaluated during ridden exercise. Multivariable negative binomial regression modelling was used to assess the relationship between the sum of tacking‐up and mounting behaviours and horse, rider and tack‐fit variables.ResultsRiding School horses comprised only 12% of the sample population, but had higher rates of abnormal behaviours during both tacking‐up (P<0.0001) and mounting (P = 0.007) compared with General Purpose horses. The rate of abnormal behaviour during tacking‐up for horses with moderate or severe lameness was 1.4 times higher (P = 0.02) than for nonlame horses. Horses with lameness in‐hand or ridden had 1.5 times higher rates of abnormal behaviour during mounting than nonlame horses. Tight tree points (P = 0.03) and epaxial muscle pain (P<0.001) were associated with higher behaviour scores during tacking‐up. Higher static saddle‐fit scores were associated with higher behaviour scores during mounting.Main limitationsOral examination was not performed.ConclusionsThe display of many behaviours during tacking‐up or mounting is likely to reflect lameness or tack‐associated discomfort. Owners must be better educated to recognise these behaviours.

SummaryThe Ridden Horse Pain Ethogram (RHpE) comprises 24 behaviours, the majority of which are at least 10 times more likely to be seen in lame horses compared with non‐lame horses. The observation of ≥8/24 behaviours is likely to reflect the presence of musculoskeletal pain, although some lame horses score <8/24 behaviours. A marked reduction in RHpE scores after resolution of lameness using diagnostic anaesthesia proves a causal relationship between pain and RHpE scores. Horses should be assessed for approximately 10 min in walk, trot (including 10 m diameter circles), canter and transitions. The validity of the RHpE has been verified for use in horses which perform dressage‐type movements, and which have been trained to work with the front of the head in a vertical position. It has not, as yet, been used in horses while jumping, racehorses, western performance or endurance horses. The RHpE provides a valuable tool for riders, trainers, veterinarians and other equine professionals to recognise the presence of musculoskeletal pain, even if overt lameness cannot be recognised. Riders with a higher skill‐level may improve gait quality, but cannot obscure behavioural signs of pain, although specific behaviours may change. Tight saddle tree points, the rider sitting on the caudal third of the saddle and rider weight may influence RHpE scores. Accurate application of the RHpE requires training and practice. The RHpE is a powerful tool for the assessment of ridden horses and the identification of likely musculoskeletal pain. Such pain merits further investigation and treatment, to improve equine welfare and performance. The RHpE provides an additional means of evaluating the response to diagnostic anaesthesia. It provides a mechanism for client education and a diplomatic way of communicating with clients about equine discomfort related to saddle‐fit, rider size, their position in the saddle and ability to ride in balance.

SummaryA Ridden Horse Pain Ethogram (RHpE) was previously developed to facilitate the detection of musculoskeletal pain. The objectives were to apply the RHpE during warm‐up for the dressage phase of two 5* three‐day events and to correlate the RHpE scores with subsequent performance. It was hypothesised that there would be a higher rate of failure to complete the cross‐country phase in horses which exhibited ≥7 behaviours compared with those showing <7 behaviours. The RHpE, comprising 24 behaviours, was applied for 10–12 min during warm‐up. Gait abnormalities in trot and canter were recorded. Dressage penalties, cross‐country performance, showjumping penalties and final placings were documented. Horses were categorised as those which completed cross‐country, or those which did not complete because of elimination or retirement. RHpE scores (n = 137) ranged from 0 to 9/24 (median 3 [range 0–9] for nonlame horses; median 5 [range 1–9] for horses with gait abnormalities in trot or canter). There was a moderate correlation between dressage penalty scores and the RHpE score (rho = 0.4, P<0.001, Spearman rank). Fifty‐nine per cent of horses (n = 10/17) with a RHpE score ≥7 failed to complete cross‐country, compared with 33% (n = 39/117) with a score <7. Horses that failed to complete the cross‐country phase had higher RHpE scores compared with those that completed (P = 0.04, W = 8.3, Kruskal–Wallis; pairwise comparison Bonferroni, P = 0.06). There was a significant (rho = 0.3) relationship between total RHpE score and final horse placings (n = 80, P<0.01, Spearman rank). Horses with lameness or gait abnormalities in canter had significantly higher RHpE scores (P<0.01, χ2 = 35, chi‐square test) compared with other horses. There was a strong correlation between the RHpE scores for horses which competed at both events (P<0.001, rho = 0.6, Spearman rank). The RHpE should facilitate earlier identification of horses which may benefit from diagnosis and treatment, resulting in improvement in both performance and equine welfare.

The Ridden Horse Pain Ethogram (RHpE) was applied to 1010 competition starts at British Eventing (BE) 90, 100 and Novice one-day events and compared with performance. The overall median RHpE score was 4/24 (IQR 2,6; range 0,12). There were moderate positive correlations between RHpE scores and dressage penalties (Spearman’s rho = 0.508, 0.468, 0.491, all p < 0.001 for BE 90, 100 and Novice, respectively). There were weak positive correlations between RHpE scores and final placings (Spearman’s rho = 0.157, p = 0.033, BE90; rho = 0.263, p < 0.001, BE 100; rho = 0.123, p = 0.035, Novice). In showjumping, 1.7% of starters were eliminated or retired, compared with 9.8% of cross-country starters. Horse or rider falls occurred in 2.6% of cross-country starts. Horses placed first, second or third had lower median RHpE scores (2/24, IQR 1,4; range 0,8) than other horses that finished (p < 0.001), those that were eliminated or retired (p < 0.001) or were withdrawn (p < 0.001). The RHpE score was ≥8/24 for 9.3% of starters; horses with a RHpE score ≥8/24 had higher total penalty scores (p < 0.001) than horses with a RHpE score <8/24. The overall low median RHpE score supports the social licence to compete, but 9% of starters had a RHpE score ≥8/24. Investigation and treatment of these horses may improve both welfare and performance.

Animal welfare should include the possibility of animals experiencing positive emotions. Emotions influence the cognitive process, and judgment bias tests (JBTs) are employed in different species, to assess the optimistic or pessimistic expectation of an individual and its affective state. Only recently the JBTs have been applied to horses. This research aims to investigate the relationship between a spatial JBT and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) chronic and acute activation in forty-one animals hosted in different kinds of environments: traditional stables (TS), natural boarding (NB), and ethological stable (ES). Fecal (FC) and horsehair (HC) cortisol concentrations were quantified for each subject through Radio-Immuno-Assay (RIA). Body condition score (BCS), as an indirect index of animal motivation towards food, and personality traits were measured to explore their possible influence on JBT results. Horses had to distinguish a positive position (P), where a bucket full of food was positioned, from a negative one (N), with an empty bucket. Then, 3 intermediate positions (Near Negative-NN, Near positive-NP, and Medium-M) with an empty bucket were presented to the subject one at a time. Only 20 subjects out of 41 completed the JBT and were included in the statistical analysis, and both BCS and P position, whether at the right or the left of the subject, seems to have influenced the inclusion rate. Only the ES group registered a significantly lower score in NN, suggesting a more optimistic affective state, whereas NB and TS did not significantly differ in their responses. Despite this, horses from NB recorded higher FC concentration than TS subjects during all the phases of the test, but lower HC levels, which could suggest a generally lower level of chronic stress but its interpretation presents several confounding factors. These results put into question whether JBT is indeed a good test to monitor the quality of the management, as it does not seem to reflect the chronic physiological state of the animals and could be influenced by a state of acute stress, caused by the test procedure. Due to these confounding factors, this procedure should be accompanied by other indicators. Finally, to include more animals and exclude possible biases, the structure of the JBT and the employment of food as a reward should be evaluated considering the peculiarities of the species and individual motivations.

SummaryBucking behaviour in horses is potentially dangerous to riders. There is limited information about how bucking behaviour should be investigated by veterinarians. The objectives of this article are to define bucking behaviour, to review the literature relating to bucking and allied behaviours in horses and describe personal observations and to describe an approach to clinical investigation and management strategies. A literature review from 2000 to 2020 was performed via search engines and additional free searches. A buck is an upward leap, usually in addition to forward propulsion, when either both hindlimbs or all four limbs are off the ground with the thoracolumbosacral region raised. Bucking often occurs as a series of such leaps and different manifestations include ‘pronking’, ‘bronking’ and ‘fly bucking’. Causes include excitement, exuberance, defensive behaviour associated with fear, learned behaviour through negative reinforcement or a reaction to musculoskeletal pain. Specific causes of pain include an ill‐fitting saddle or girth, thoracolumbar pain, girth region pain, sternal or rib injury, neuropathic pain, sacroiliac joint region pain, referred pain and primary hindlimb lameness. Any of these may be compounded by a rider who is fearful, poorly balanced or crooked. Determination of the underlying cause requires a comprehensive clinical assessment, including assessment of saddle fit for horse and rider and suitability of the horse–rider combination. In some horses, identification of a primary source of pain allows targeted treatment and resolution of pain, but careful retraining is crucial. An understanding of learning behaviour is required for successful rehabilitation. It was concluded that identification of the cause of bucking may enable treatment of primary pain which, when combined with retraining, results in management of bucking behaviour. However, in a minority of horses, dangerous bucking behaviour cannot be reliably resolved, requiring retirement or euthanasia of the horse.