Skin abscesses are localized purulent infections frequently observed in various livestock species, including white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), often resulting in compromised animal welfare and reduced productivity. This publication reviews the etiology, classification, clinical presentation, and treatment modalities of cutaneous abscess in livestock, emphasizing prevention and management strategies. The role of specific pathogens, including Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis, Staphylococcus aureus, Trueperella pyogenes, and Fusobacterium necrophorum, is discussed alongside practical approaches for diagnosis, antimicrobial therapy, and environmental control.

Many mosquito species act as vectors for zoonotic pathogens, transmitting them between natural amplifying hosts and dead-end hosts. Determining the relationship between mosquitoes and their hosts is crucial for understanding the lifecycle dynamics of such pathogens. The aim of this research was to assess the host-feeding patterns of mosquitoes inhabiting natural and semi-natural environments of Vojvodina Province, Serbia, using the invertebrate-derived DNA (iDNA) from blood-fed female mosquitoes. Mosquito species (Diptera: Culicidae) belonging to four genera were identified, based upon morphological characteristics. A segment of the 16S rRNA gene was amplified and sequenced, allowing for 10 different vertebrate host species to be identified. Culex specimens collected in this study primarily fed on birds, while mammal species constituted about a third of their bloodmeals. Species of Anopheles and Aedes overwhelmingly took bloodmeals from a single host species, the red deer, but also fed on other mammal species from diverse families. Our results indicate that enzootic and bridge vectors are active in the study area, feeding upon the respective host groups that could sustain transmission of mosquito-transmitted viruses, highlighting the need for continued surveillance of the region.

Multiple external factors influence the production of red deer (Cervus elaphus) including environmental variability, herd density and supplemental feeding, and the response of populations to these interacting factors is highly variable across the distribution of the species. We assessed the impact of natural forage production, supplemental feeding and population density on female reproduction, stag trophy quality, and annual population growth rate using a 10 year data set from eight red deer management units in the Vojvodina Province of the Republic of Serbia. Unique to this dataset was a detailed accounting of the amount and types of supplemental feed provided to each management unit through time. Multivariate models indicated that nutrient availability was important to female reproduction and the production of trophy quality stags. In addition to the quality of natural forage available, we found that the type of supplemental feed was particularly important to the production of calves and to the size of antlers produced in stags. As the climate in the Western Balkans continues to shift to drier, hotter summers, supplemental feeding may become a crucial feature of maintaining trophy quality populations. Further research to optimize the type of supplemental feed provided to red deer herds is necessary.

Trueperella pyogenes is a gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic bacterium known to cause infections in both domestic and wild animals, including white-tailed deer (WTD; Odocoileus virginianus). However, limited studies have focused on its impact on farmed WTD. In this study, we aimed to explore the demographic features, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) profiles, and virulence factors of T. pyogenes isolated from farmed WTD in Florida. Between 2016 and 2023, we managed 831 deceased farmed WTD cases. Specimens from 715 animals were subjected to bacterial culture. T. pyogenes was isolated from 147 (20.6%) animals, ranking as the second most frequently isolated bacterial pathogen. All T. pyogenes-infected animals exhibited pneumonia. T. pyogenes infection cases were notably more prevalent during summer and fall. Between September 2020 and May 2022, all available T. pyogenes isolates (n = 37) recovered from various specimen types from 30 diseased deer were included and analyzed using whole-genome sequencing and phylogenetic approaches. The results revealed substantial single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) diversity within the core genomes of the T. pyogenes strains. Antimicrobial resistance profiling showed that tetracycline resistance genes, particularly tetW, predominated, while genes associated with resistance to aminoglycosides, sulfonamides, and other tetracyclines were detected sporadically. Genes for several virulence factors were also identified, including pyolysin (plo), collagen-binding protein (cbpA), and various adhesion molecules. These findings highlight the importance of disease management strategies, including surveillance and targeted antimicrobial use, to mitigate T. pyogenes transmission in farmed WTD. Broader surveillance using non-postmortem clinical specimens and culture-independent approaches is needed to better understand its epidemiology. IMPORTANCE:Trueperella pyogenes is an opportunistic pathogen that has likely been underrecognized in its role in white-tailed deer health. Our demographic and genomic analysis of T. pyogenes isolated from deceased farmed white-tailed deer in Florida identified seasonal patterns, frequent association with pneumonia, and substantial genomic diversity among isolates. These findings highlight the need for enhanced surveillance, improved diagnostic approaches, and preventive measures to better understand and manage T. pyogenes infections in farmed and free-ranging cervid populations. By characterizing the demographic and genomic features of T. pyogenes in this understudied host system, this study provides a foundation for future research on pathogen ecology, disease surveillance, and cervid health management, including monitoring in settings where farmed deer may interact with surrounding wildlife.

In the southwestern United States, the occurrence and potential for disease spread of Tick-Borne Relapsing Fever (TBRF) has been studied. In Florida, Borrelia pathogens that cause TBRF have only been found in two domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris), yet the soft tick vector, Ornithodoros turicata americanus, is commonly found throughout the state. The goal of our study was to provide the first large-scale investigation of this disease system in the southeastern US. Our objectives were to: 1) describe the occurrence and prevalence of Borrelia spp. in ticks found throughout their distribution; and 2) phylogenetically describe the pathogen species compared to other isolates of B. turicatae. We pooled ticks by sample location and extracted DNA from over 3,000 ticks systematically collected throughout Florida. Conventional PCR was used with a genus-wide IGS primer to detect any Borrelia spp. present in the ticks. We discovered a low but detectable prevalence (7/745; 0.94%) of the pathogen within localized foci, which could present an epidemiological risk to humans and companion animals in those areas. We Sanger sequenced the 7 pools that were positive for Borrelia spp. and created a phylogenetic tree with our samples and 27 previously described isolates. Our tree showed clustering of our samples into two distinct clades, one that fit with Texas isolates and one that was entirely distinct. We hypothesized that a combination of biogeographic and host influences may be the driving force behind the history of Borrelia turicatae in Florida. Future research is needed to improve our understanding of the drivers of pathogen occurrence and the phylogeography of this species. By understanding the occurrence and phylogenetics of Borrelia turicatae in the state, we can better comprehend and mitigate the risk of this neglected vector-borne disease for humans and companion animals in Florida.

We report the isolation and coding complete genome sequences of a new CHeRI orbivirus from the spleen of a dead farmed white-tailed deer in Florida whose death was attributed to an infection by mule deerpox virus. Phylogenetic and genetic analyses support this new virus as the fifth strain of the CHeRI orbivirus 3 species, and we designated it CHeRI orbivirus 3-5. While our previous detections and isolations of CHeRI orbiviruses were from deer spleens that also contained epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus-2, or in one case, Hardee County ephemerovirus 1, no deerpox virus was isolated from the spleen of the animal in this report, marking the first time we have isolated a CHeRI orbivirus without a co-infecting agent.

Culicoides biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) are important, yet understudied vectors of animal and human pathogens. Many biting midge species reach significantly higher densities at tree canopy height (10-20 m), compared to ground level (1 m), which may compromise the effectiveness of space spray ground adulticiding. Timing adulticide applications to coincide with the hour(s) of greatest midge density at ground level could ameliorate this issue. However, the circadian activity patterns for most vector species remain poorly understood, especially in regard to vertical movement (between ground and canopy). This study investigated the circadian flight patterns and vertical stratification of two vector species (Culicoides insignis Lutz and Culicoides stellifer [Coquillett]) using a novel hourly sampling light trap operated at ground (≈1 m) and canopy (≈11 m) heights from 1700 h to 0800 h on two Florida deer farms. Both C. insignis and C. stellifer exhibited strong vertical stratification, with significantly more midges collected in the canopy than at ground level, up to 7.4-fold and 11.5-fold differences, respectively. Peak flight activity was not crepuscular, but occurred between 0028 h and 0103 h for C. insignis, and between 2240 h and 0234 h for C. stellifer, varying somewhat by location and height. The circadian and vertical activity patterns observed here contrast with assumptions of crepuscular activity in Culicoides spp. This suggests that the current timing of ultra-low volume insecticide applications on deer farms (typically dusk) is not aligned with peak Culicoides activity (2200 h-0200 h), reducing efficacy of control measures. To optimize Culicoides control outcomes, adulticides should be applied when Culicoides activity peaks.

Triatoma sanguisuga is the most widely distributed triatomine vector in North America, occurring in at least 23 U.S. states across and capable of transmitting Trypanosoma cruzi to humans. Historical morphological variability led to the description of several subspecies, but their taxonomic validity has remained unresolved. We integrated molecular (cytochrome b, n=58; ITS-2, n=23) and morphometric (18 characters, n=82 specimens) data to reassess species boundaries within T. sanguisuga sensu lato. Four species-delimitation methods (GMYC, ABGD, mPTP, hierBAPS) consistently identified four divergent mitochondrial lineages with K2P distances of 4.5-8.8%. Florida specimens formed a distinct, strongly supported clade (Group 1; K2P >7.5% from other groups) corresponding to T. sanguisuga var. ambigua (Neiva, 1911). Linear discriminant analysis achieved 100% classification accuracy between Florida and non-Florida morphotypes, with synthlipsis width providing the strongest diagnostic character (AUC >0.96). Based on concordant genetic and morphological evidence, we revalidate Triatoma ambigua (Neiva, 1911) stat. nov. as a distinct species within a newly defined T. sanguisuga complex and designate a lectotype from the Instituto Oswaldo Cruz collection. Sampling focused primarily on Florida; additional sampling in adjacent southeastern states is needed to characterize geographic boundaries. These findings have implications for Chagas disease vector surveillance in the southeastern United States.

Wading birds may serve as ideal hosts for avian hemoparasites, as they are long-lived, undertake extensive movements, form dense breeding colonies, and inhabit water-associated environments that support vectors. Although previous studies have reported parasite species and prevalence in various wading bird species, little is known about their associations with bird behavior and life stage. To address this gap, we examined haemosporidian infections in two ecologically distinct species, white ibis (Eudocimus albus) and tricolored heron (Egretta tricolor), to explore differences in life stage and movement that may explain prevalence differences. We combined blood screening for hemoparasites with satellite tracking data describing birds' movement patterns. We screened 95 white ibis (67 juveniles and 28 adults or subadults) and 69 tricolored herons (45 juveniles and 24 adults). We detected a single Haemoproteus plataleae lineage in both species, with higher infection prevalence in white ibis (42.1 %) than in tricolored herons (14.5 %). Among white ibis, adults showed a higher prevalence (67.9 %) than juveniles (31.3 %), whereas in tricolored herons, adults had a prevalence of 8.3 % and juveniles 17.8 %. Non-breeding season movement data showed that white ibis used both freshwater and saline habitats across the southeastern United States, which may also serve as habitats for vectors. In contrast, tricolored herons remained mainly along coastal areas, using saline habitats in the southeastern United States and wintering sites in Central America, which may be less favorable for vectors. Overall, white ibis may serve as major reservoirs and sources of reinfection for H. plataleae, whereas tricolored herons may facilitate parasite dispersal between breeding colonies along the coasts of the southeastern United States and wintering areas in Central America. This study presents the first direct comparison of hemoparasite infections in two ecologically distinct wading birds and highlights movement data as key to explaining infection differences, providing a baseline for future studies.

An emerging disease known as mule deerpox virus (Cervidpoxvirus muledeerpox) (DPV) has spread across North America in both wild and captive cervid populations. While little is known about its prevalence in wild cervids, research in domestic populations indicates a high mortality associated with this pathogen, particularly in fawns. Most recently, a new Cervidpoxvirus has been reported in semi-domestic populations of reindeer in Sweden and Norway, expanding its geographical range internationally. Currently, there is no standard protocol to detect this virus, and the increasing range of this pathogen highlights the importance of a standard validated diagnostic test. In this study, we developed and partially-validated a TaqMan quantitative PCR assay to detect Cervidpoxvirus based on the major capsid protein using the World Organization for Animal Health’s diagnostic assay guidelines. Aligning the three available whole genomes of DPV from GenBank W-848-83 (GenBank: NC_006966.1); W-1170-84 (GenBank: AY689437.1); MDPV-F (GenBank: MF966153), showed that the major capsid protein gene was highly conserved (> 99

The invasive weed Parthenium hysterophorus has severely disrupted ecosystems worldwide, driven by its persistent seed bank and phytotoxic compounds that suppress surrounding vegetation and negatively impact herbivorous mammals. It is widely assumed that wild ungulates avoid parthenium weed-dominated areas due to its presumed unpalatability and toxicity, but direct evidence is limited. We experimentally tested whether ungulates in an African savanna actively forage on parthenium weed by contrasting herbivore foraging in mechanically cleared and controlled areas using exclosures in parthenium-invaded areas. We also assessed whether reduction in body condition scores was associated with foraging on parthenium weed, and whether herbivory suppresses parthenium weed regrowth. Our experimental results show that ungulates foraged on parthenium rosettes without apparent negative impacts on body condition. Notably, herbivore activity significantly reduced parthenium cover in cleared areas. These findings reveal a previously undocumented potential for leveraging wild ungulate herbivory as a biocontrol mechanism for managing parthenium weed invasions.

Mosquito blood meals provide a biological sample of host blood which can then be used in downstream applications including host–pathogen detection. We conducted DNA barcoding to identify the host species of blood meals from 4557 blood engorged mosquitoes collected in south central Florida, USA. We identified 314 blood meals from invasive wild pigs, 219 wild turkey blood meals, and 1046 white-tailed deer blood meals. From a subset of these host blood meals, we used molecular assays to detect the nucleic acids of Torque teno sus virus 1 (TTSuV1) in wild pig blood meals, Lymphoproliferative virus (LPDV) in wild turkey blood meals, and bluetongue virus (BTV) in white-tailed deer blood meals. None of these wildlife pathogens are transmitted by mosquitoes, but viral nucleic acids circulate in the peripheral blood of host species during or post infection. Prevalence of TTSuV1 in wild pig blood meals was 34%; in wild turkey blood meals the prevalence of LPDV was 2.7%, and BTV prevalence in blood meals of white-tailed deer was 3.6%. These prevalence values were similar to estimates obtained from peripheral blood collected directly from these hosts in Florida. Our analysis suggests that mosquito blood meals are a valuable sampling tool for the detection of wildlife pathogens. We suggest that this type of exogenous xenosurveillance, using mosquitoes to infer information about the vertebrate host, is distinct from endogenous xenosurveillance in which the goal is to understand the role of the arthropod in vectoring a pathogen.

Identifying areas in a landscape where individuals have a higher likelihood of disease infection is key to managing diseases. Unlike conventional methods relying on ecological assumptions, we perform a novel epidemiological tomography for the estimation of landscape propensity to disease infection, using GPS animal tracks in a manner analogous to tomographic techniques in positron emission tomography (PET). Treating tracking data as random Radon transforms, we analyze Cervid movements in a game preserve, paired with antibody levels for epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV)-a vector-borne disease transmitted by biting midges. After discretizing the field and building the regression matrix of the time spent by each deer (row) at each point of the lattice (column), we model the binary response (infected or not) as a binomial linear inverse problem where spatial coherence is enforced with a total variation regularization. To address limitations of small sample sizes and evaluate significance of our estimate, we quantify uncertainty using a bootstrap-based data augmentation procedure. Our method achieved superior performance in the majority of simulated scenarios and real data. Notably, our tomographic estimator frequently reduces the mean squared error by about half compared to direct empirical estimators. This tomographic framework is novel, with no established statistical methods tailored for such data.

Hemorrhagic disease caused by bluetongue virus (BTV) significantly impacts Florida’s deer farming industry each year. In 2022, we investigated mortality events in white-tailed deer on two separate farms. Necropsies were performed on affected animals, and tissues were subjected to RT-qPCR screening and molecular diagnostics, confirming BTV infection. Virus isolation in C6/36 cell culture and whole-genome sequencing identified BTV serotype 5 (BTV-5) infection in both fawns—the first cases reported in Florida since 2003. Our analyses further reveal that key serotype-defining genome segments (2 and 6) remained conserved, while other segments exhibited evidence of reassortment with co-circulating BTV strains in the region. This suggests that BTV-5 may have persisted undetected at low levels, undergoing genetic exchange with co-circulating strains. These findings highlight the need for improved surveillance programs to monitor genetic changes and mitigate impacts on deer and other ruminants in Florida.

Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) is a globally significant pathogen affecting both domestic livestock and wildlife, including white-tailed deer (WTD; Odocoileus virginianus). While experimental infections have demonstrated WTD susceptibility to BVDV, natural infections and associated reproductive outcomes remain scarcely documented. Here, we report the first confirmed case of naturally occurring BVDV-1 infection associated with fetal mummification in farmed WTD in Florida. A two-year-old doe experienced a stillbirth involving two mummified fetuses, which were submitted for necropsy and laboratory diagnostics. Gross findings included diarrhea and underdeveloped eyes in the fetuses, along with small white nodules indicative of amnion nodosum. While not harmful, this condition suggests underlying fetal compromise or intrauterine stress. Virus isolation using Vero E6 and bovine turbinate cell lines, along with a reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) assay specifically developed in this study, confirmed the presence of BVDV-1 (Pestivirus bovis) RNA in both maternal and fetal samples, suggesting vertical transmission. Sanger sequencing of RT-PCR amplicons further verified the virus species as BVDV-1. Differential diagnostics for other pathogens, including bluetongue virus, epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus, Mycobacterium spp., and Toxoplasma gondii, were negative. These findings underscore the importance of using biosecurity measures and including BVDV in the differential diagnosis of abortions to reduce the risk of BVDV transmission and potential outbreaks on deer farms, particularly those close to cattle operations. The molecular tools developed in this study provide a robust framework for improved detection and monitoring of BVDV in both wildlife and livestock populations.

Culicoides biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) and mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) are important vectors of pathogens affecting ruminants. On deer farms, Culicoides species transmit bluetongue virus and epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus, while mosquitoes can cause chronic stress and even exsanguination. We evaluated the effectiveness of the insecticide -InsectGuard (0.5% permethrin), applied as a barrier treatment and pour-on, to reduce mosquito and biting midge landings on deer in Martin County, Florida. Deer simulators baited with carbon dioxide and fitted with sticky cards were used to trap landing insects. A polyethylene fence barrier treated with InsectGuard (1.34 fl oz/m2) and an untreated fence were tested against a no-barrier control. Separately, InsectGuard pour-on (1 fl oz per deer) was compared to an untreated control. The -InsectGuard-treated barrier and pour-on applications reduced landings of three Culicoides species, including Culicoides insignis Lutz, a key bluetongue virus vector, by 175-fold and 7-fold, respectively. The InsectGuard-treated barrier also reduced mosquito landings: Culex spp. (15-fold), and Psorophora spp. (6-fold). While the InsectGuard pour-on caused a dramatic reduction of C. insignis, it had no measurable effect on Culex spp., Psorophora spp., or Culicoides floridensis Beck and appeared to attract Culicoides pusillus Lutz (8-fold increase). Our findings demonstrate that permethrin-treated barriers and pour-on applications can reduce the landing and, therefore, potential infectious bites of mosquitoes and biting midges. These interventions can be incorporated as part of an integrated vector management program for deer farms to enhance control outcomes, in combination with other strategies such as adulticide sprays, habitat management, and vaccination.

A novel ephemeral fever rhabdovirus and a CHeRI orbivirus of a previously unidentified genetic lineage were isolated in mosquito cell line C6/36 cells as co-infecting agents from the spleen tissue of a dead farmed white-tailed deer (WTD; Odocoileus virginianus) in Florida. We designated the ephemeral fever rhabdovirus as Hardee County ephemerovirus 1, strain CHeRI ephemerovirus 1. The genetic sequences of the CHeRI orbivirus isolated in this work differ significantly from those of three previously described CHeRI orbivirus lineages. We designated this new virus as CHeRI orbivirus 4, strain CHeRI orbivirus 4-1. Whereas it remains unknown whether one, both, or none of the viruses contributed to the pathology, gross observations revealed that the dead WTD had severely congested and hemorrhagic lungs, and that its heart, kidneys, and spleen were also congested.

BackgroundAntimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a critical public health issue; with many experts suggesting we are already in a post-antibiotic era. The widespread use of antibiotics in agriculture, human, and veterinary medicine influences the spread of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) among humans, animals, and the environment. In Florida, white-tailed deer (WTD; Odocoileus virginianus) farming plays a vital role in the economy and environment, but the use of antimicrobials in farmed WTD, along with their proximity to urban and agricultural areas, increases the pressure for AMR development. Understanding the resistance patterns in these deer populations is crucial for their health, as well as for wildlife and ecosystems. This research aimed to investigate the resistome of Florida-farmed WTD. Escherichia coli, a commonly used indicator bacterium, was chosen to study AMR due to its pathogenicity and ease of culture.MethodsSamples from various tissues were collected during necropsy. Escherichia coli was isolated and cultured, and whole-genome sequencing was performed using a high-throughput NovaSeq platform. The AMR++ v 3.0 pipeline and ResistoXplorer tool were employed for data normalization and analysis. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of the E. coli isolates was conducted using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method on Mueller-Hinton agar, based on the guidelines and recommendations in the CLSI VET01S.ResultsA total of 362 unique ARGs were identified, conferring resistance to 12 antimicrobial classes via 19 mechanisms. The most abundant classes were ß-lactams, multi-drug resistance, and bacitracin. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing showed that 30% of E. coli isolates were resistant to at least one drug under aerobic conditions, while 68% were resistant under anaerobic conditions. Moreover, 15% of isolates displayed multi-drug resistance in both conditions. The study also compared genotypic and phenotypic AMR profiles using kappa, revealing good to very good agreement for several drugs.ConclusionThis is the first study to characterize the resistome of farmed WTD in Florida, providing valuable data for better management of antimicrobial use in these populations.

Parasitic diseases are associated with diverse clinical signs, and veterinary professionals must be familiar with the presentations of infections in a variety of hosts. As human activity introduces new and exotic host species, expanding our understanding of pathogen effects in new species becomes integral to effective surveillance, diagnosis, and treatment. This article presents the expansion of the known host range of the American liver fluke, Fascioloides magna, with the infection of a farmed impala (Aepyceros melampus) in Marion County, Florida, USA. The gross and histopathological lesions observed are consistent with previous reports of dead-end host infections, particularly black striping across the peritoneum and abdominal viscera, a prominent pseudocyst on the visceral face of the liver, and hepatic fibrosis and biliary hyperplasia associated with tissue taken from that pseudocyst. While no whole or partial fluke was obtained from a field necropsy of the impala, amplification via cPCR and Sanger sequencing of the ITS2 region confirmed the presence of Fascioloides magna DNA in a frozen liver sample. This diagnostic approach was selected following the determination of an absence of fluke eggs in feces, as is characteristic of dead-end and aberrant host infections. While impala likely play little role in determining population-scale epidemiological and ecological dynamics of fluke infections, given their dead-end host status, this report serves as an important reference for managers and veterinary professionals hoping to preserve the health and welfare of exotic bovids that interface with native American cervids, the definitive hosts of Fascioloides magna.

Deer farming is a robust industry in the United States, with farmed and wild cervids vulnerable to vector-borne diseases such as hemorrhagic disease, caused by bluetongue virus and epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus. These viruses are transmitted by biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae: Culicoides), highlighting the importance of vector control in safeguarding deer health on deer farms. Despite the role of biting midges as pathogen vectors, effective control programs for managing biting midges remain underdeveloped. To address this gap, a comprehensive evaluation of current pest and vector management practices on deer farms is essential for designing successful control strategies against hemorrhagic disease vectors. We conducted a Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices (KAP) survey among Florida trophy-deer farmers using an online questionnaire to gather data related to pest and vector control. Thirty-three survey responses were collected out of a pool of 60 farmers. Sixty-six percent of the respondents used insecticides to control pests and vectors, including biting midges, with nearly 70% of these applications using permethrin-based products, with applications taking place as often as daily. Over 82% of the respondents believe that insecticides are the most effective way to control pests, yet most (66%) do not rotate insecticides, raising concerns about the development of insecticide resistance. Our findings underscore the need for educational programs to enhance deer farmers’ understanding of safe and sustainable pest and vector management practices. These efforts could improve pest and vector control efficacy while mitigating the risk of insecticide resistance, ultimately promoting long-term health and productivity in trophy-deer farming.