Coprophagy is widespread among herbivores but remains poorly understood in reptiles, where its ecological function has rarely been tested. We conducted controlled choice experiments with 25 adult Texas tortoises (Gopherus berlandieri), an arid-adapted hindgut fermenter, to determine whether feces consumption represents incidental ingestion or a selective behavioral strategy. Each tortoise was presented with six feces types representing self, conspecific, and heterospecific sources (feral hog (Sus scrofa), raccoon (Procyon lotor), coyote (Canis latrans), and nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus)). Coprophagy occurred in 96% of individuals, and both the probability and relative amount of consumption differed significantly among feces types. Tortoises showed a consistent preference hierarchy (e.g., self, conspecific, feral hog, raccoon, coyote, nilgai), providing evidence for a compatibility-risk gradient in which individuals favored feces most similar in dietary composition and microbial origin while avoiding those likely to pose digestive or pathogenic risk. These patterns suggest that coprophagy serves as a behavioral mechanism of nutrient recapture and microbial maintenance, sustaining fermentation efficiency in environments where microbial reservoirs are ephemeral. By selectively regulating microbial exposure, tortoises mitigate ecological constraints imposed by aridity and low nutrient availability. Our findings identify selective coprophagy as an adaptive behavior that links individual physiology with nutrient and microbial cycling in arid ecosystems, illustrating how behavioral flexibility promotes persistence in long-lived vertebrates inhabiting resource-limited environments.

Plateau Spot-tailed Earless Lizards (Holbrookia lacerata) and Tamaulipan Spot-tailed Earless Lizards (H.subcaudalis) (hereafter STELs) are phrynosomatid lizards that are species of conservation concern. STELs are insectivoresand are thought to be visual predators, but predation strategies have not been empirically documented. We randomlyassigned 15 Plateau and 15 Tamaulipan STELs to one of three predation-behavior treatments: (1) live cricket,(2) dead cricket glued to monofilament line and moved, or (3) dead crickets. Both STEL species attacked only movingcrickets, clearly demonstrating that STELs are visual predators. This has important conservation implications becauseSTELs frequently occupy peripheries of agricultural fields, where pesticides often are used; consequently, feeding onimmobile prey, particularly insects, could have negative consequences for these imperiled lizards.

BackgroundTexas tortoises (Gopherus berlandieri) are a Texas-state threatened species. Translocation is often suggested as a mitigation option; however, disease status and the potential for spread must be considered prior to such efforts. Mycoplasma infection of the upper respiratory tract is a concern within tortoise populations, which requires monitoring so translocation efforts do not inadvertently spread the disease.ObjectivesWe determined and compared the prevalences of Mycoplasma agassizii in Texas tortoises from donor and recipient sites in southern Texas prior to translocation, treated Mycoplasma agassizii-infected tortoises with danofloxacin, and developed alternate Mycoplasma agassizii treatments for Texas tortoises.MethodsWe collected 171 and 23 Texas tortoises from a 270-ha and a 100-ha donor site and recipient site, respectively. We began a regimen of danofloxacin (6 mg/kg body weight injected subcutaneously every other day for 30 days) for tortoises with clinical signs (N = 20). We noted an additional 10 tortoises began displaying clinical signs of upper respiratory tract disease (URTD) after translocation, so we designed a trial to test tulathromycin (5 mg/kg body weight given intramuscularly once/week for 7 weeks) or oxytetracycline (8 mg/kg body weight given subcutaneously once/day for 14 days) as Mycoplasma treatments for symptomatic tortoises.ResultsWithin the donor and recipient sites, 56 (32.7%) and 8 (34.8%), respectively, had antibody titers suggestive of past exposure. Eighteen tortoises from the donor site (10.5%) and 2 from the recipient site (8.7%) displayed clinical signs (i.e., clear serous nasal discharge, conjunctivitis, and palpebral edema) consistent with Mycoplasmal URTD upon initial collection, even though all polymerase chain reaction (PCR) results were negative for active shedding of Mycoplasma agassizii. We ceased treatment after the first dose of danofloxacin due to adverse reactions, which only began to subside after 72 h from the initial dose. Neither tulathromycin or oxytetracycline caused the clinical signs of URTD to subside after a 50-day treatment period.ConclusionMycoplasma is a persistent issue facing Texas tortoises. Stressors, such as translocation, can cause Mycoplasma-seropositive tortoises to display clinical symptoms of URTD, which can abate without treatment, once the stressor subsides.ImplicationsDanofloxacin, the recommended treatment for Mycoplasma infection in tortoises, is too potent for Texas tortoises.

We examined the emergence behavior of spot-tailed earless lizards (STEL; Holbrookia lacerata and H. subcaudalis). Using controlled laboratory and seminatural experiments, we evaluated the effects of UV light, visible light, temperature, and prey activity on STEL emergence timing. Our results revealed that the combination of UV and visible light was the primary trigger for STEL emergence, aligning with peak light intensity and suggesting a physiological adaptation mediated through the parietal eye. In addition, the median time of emergence was 5 min after the initiation of LED and UV lights regardless of the time of day. Peak STEL activity occurred between 14:01 and 16:00 h with nearly 50% of STEL aboveground. This delayed emergence after sunrise allows for rapid thermoregulation, minimizing basking time while reducing predation risk by avoiding periods of peak predator (e.g., birds of prey, diurnal snakes) activity, which typically occurs during early morning and late afternoon hours, which is characteristic of arid systems. Moreover, the timing likely optimizes vitamin D3 synthesis, crucial for metabolic health, and minimizes energy expenditure associated with prolonged thermoregulation. STEL's emergence patterns contrast with sympatric species, typically occurring during midday rather than early morning or late evening hours, suggesting a reliance on unique diel niches. Little is known about STEL's ecology, particularly regarding their diel niche and activity patterns, which likely play a crucial adaptive role in species survival and success. Our findings demonstrate the importance of habitat-specific light regimes in shaping the behaviors of reptiles and provide a model for understanding adaptive strategies in light-sensitive species. As habitat degradation and climate change alter light and thermal environments, these behaviors may be disrupted, emphasizing the need for conservation practices that preserve open, sunlit habitats. This study contributes to our understanding of the ecological adaptations of reptiles and informs conservation strategies for species in arid and semiarid ecosystems.

BackgroundAmerican alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) are maintained in zoos, aquaria, and farms for educational, research, and production purposes. The standard of veterinary medical care and welfare for captive reptiles requires managing pain and discomfort under conditions deemed painful in mammals. While analgesic efficacy and pharmacokinetic data for several reptile species are published, data with respect to analgesic efficacy in crocodilians are clearly lacking.ObjectiveThe objective of this study was to determine the analgesic efficacy of hydromorphone in alligators.MethodsFemale American alligators (N = 9; 57 months of age) were exposed to mechanical noxious stimuli at multiple anatomic sites using von Frey filaments ranging in size from 1.65 to 6.65 grams-force, and their behavioral reactions recorded. In order to evaluate analgesic efficacy, hydromorphone (0.5 mg/kg SC) was administered in the axillary region to the same alligators and the mechanical noxious stimuli were repeated and behaviors recorded.ResultsAdministration of hydromorphone contributed to a range from 62 to 92% reduced avoidance reactions to mechanical noxious stimuli for two anatomic sites (i.e., naris and lateral mandible, respectively).ConclusionAlligators did not appear to experience clinically relevant respiratory depression, hypothermia, or other adverse reactions. Therefore, hydromorphone shows promise as an analgesic option to be administered under painful conditions in American alligators.

Plateau ( Holbrookia lacerata ) and Tamaulipan ( Holbrookia subcaudalis ) spot-tailed earless lizard (STEL) populations have experienced declines in population size and distribution. Both species are considered species of concern and Tamaulipan STEL are being considered for federal threatened status. Even with this heightened concern, little is known about these species. Therefore, our objectives were to determine the most effective and time-efficient methods to survey for STEL, and to determine if a lizard density threshold was required before STEL presence could be detected. We evaluated ten standard reptile search techniques (i.e., pitfall traps, funnel traps, two thermoregulation lures (i.e., rock mounds and cover boards), remote camera surveys, detection dog surveys, quadrant searches, systematic visual searches, environmental DNA sampling, and road cruising) to identify STEL relative abundance within a 1 ha enclosure. The 1 ha enclosure was divided into 100, 10 x 10 m quadrants and each reptile search technique was replicated five times and randomly assigned to a quadrant without replacement. STEL were randomly placed inside the enclosure at known densities of 5, 10, 20, 30, and 40 lizards per ha and their relative abundance was assessed by each method three times at each STEL density during August – September, 2021. STEL were allowed 6-day acclimation periods before increasing density. Because STEL were translocated to novel habitat, caution in interpretation should be noted. However, STEL were not detected using funnel traps, rock mounds, cover boards, remote cameras, and detector dogs at any density level. Pitfall traps, quadrant searches, and eDNA samples detected few STEL, but only at 40 STEL/ha density. Only systematic visual searches and road cruising yielded STEL detections at multiple densities; however, neither method could reliably predict STEL density. Because our detection rates were low (~7% at any STEL density), road cruising can be more time efficient to survey a larger area. Once locations with STEL have been identified, then systematic visual searches between 1300–1500 hr can be conducted to determine the relative abundance of these elusive species.

Baylisascaris procyonis larva migrans is a debilitating and potentially lethal zoonotic, parasitic condition that can infect a large variety of paratenic hosts, including birds and mammals and even humans. The typical pathway to develop baylisascariasis is to ingest B. procyonis eggs from contaminated feces or through contaminated soil where contaminated fecal matter has decayed. I hypothesized that earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) living in soils contaminated with B. procyonis eggs from decayed feces of its definitive host, raccoons (Procyon lotor), would incidentally ingest B. procyonis eggs, and in turn, if earthworms were consumed by songbirds, songbirds would become infected with B. procyonis larvae, resulting in baylisascariasis. I placed 100 earthworms in B. procyonis-infused soil and determined that 92% of earthworms had a mean and SE of 7.3±0.4 B. procyonis eggs in their alimentary canals. When B. procyonis-infected earthworms were fed to European Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), 94% (17/18) of starlings displayed signs of ataxia, torticollis, and paralysis, and 11/18 (61%) died within 22 d of first ingestion of B. procyonis-infected earthworms. White blood cell counts of starlings that ingested B. procyonis-infected earthworms increased nearly threefold, percentage of eosinophils increased 25-fold, and percentage of lymphocytes increased and percentage of heterophils decreased from day 0 to day 12 postingestion. Starlings within the control group remained healthy and displayed normal behaviors. This study highlights an overlooked pathway of baylisascariasis in paratenic hosts, which has potential as a mortality factor for many species within terrestrial ecosystems.

The Plains Spotted Skunk (Spilogale interrupta) historically occurred across parts of the eastern and midwestern United States west of the Mississippi River. Following perceived population declines across much of its range, efforts to assess populations of this species have increased. Here, we report novel records of S. interrupta from this area of south Texas for the first time since 1961. This rediscovery demonstrates the persistence of this species in an underreported portion of its range. This information is useful for better understanding the distribution and population status of S. interrupta in Texas and broadly throughout North America and is crucial for future applied conservation policy efforts.

.-Spot-tailed Earless Lizards (STEL; Holbrookia lacerata, Plateau, and H. subcaudalis, Tamaulipan) are cryptic, elusive lizards, of which Tamaulipan STEL have been identified as candidates for potential federal threatened status listing. Environmental DNA (eDNA) has been proposed as a method with the potential to quickly assess areas for presence of STEL because eDNA is a non-destructive method that does not require animal capture. Therefore, we assessed the potential of using eDNA as a viable survey technique to assess the presence of STEL. Although development of eDNA could not distinguish Holbrookia at the species level, the designed assay detected the target genus from soil samples in 67% of cases when STEL were known to be present. We found that STEL needed to be in contact with soil substrate for at least 24 h to reliably detect their eDNA. Exposure of soil samples to ultraviolet light and/or high humidity increased the likelihood of obtaining a poor-quality sample that failed endogenous sample integrity checks. Consequently, there was a 77-80% chance of obtaining a false-negative result for STEL eDNA. In addition, locating specific sites where STEL had rested in soil for adequate time was akin to "finding a needle in a haystack." Lures or pheromones to entice STEL to specific locations away from direct ultaviolet light for eDNA sampling may improve eDNA detection, but such lures have not been identified. Additional research aimed at improving methodology and better understanding of biological and environmental variables in detecting eDNA of terrestrial reptiles is needed. Until then, eDNA is not recommended as a survey technique to assess the presence of STEL.

Baylisascariasis is a debilitating and potentially lethal zoonotic disease caused by a nematode parasite that has a worldwide distribution. Baylisascaris spp. are carried by a variety of mammalian definitive hosts, and their larvae can infect a large diversity of paratenic hosts including birds and mammals, and even humans. Herein, the potential exposure risk of this zoonotic parasite is demonstrated through the study of a suburban American community with a population of Baylisascaris procyonis—infected raccoons (Procyon lotor) as a case study for any location with Baylisascaris spp., definitive hosts, and proximity to humans. Soil from 100 properties within neighborhoods of southern Corpus Christi, TX, USA, was surveyed to determine if viable B. procyonis eggs were present. In total, 27% of the residential properties were contaminated. Positive soil samples, on average, contained 31,287 B. procyonis eggs/gram of soil; of these samples, 92% of the B. procyonis eggs had motile larvae. Sites with contaminated soils appeared random within residential properties; frequency of contaminated sites was similar between known raccoon defecation sites and random sites. Suggestions for the reduction in risks of exposure to this potentially debilitating parasite are offered to residents of Baylisascaris-contaminated properties.

Free-ranging nilgai antelope (Boselaphus tragocamelus) are an understudied species, both on their native ranges of India, Pakistan, and Nepal and on their introduced ranges in southern Texas. Basic data related to population sizes, survival, reproduction, and recruitment are needed throughout their range to inform management and conservation decisions. We collected nilgai fetuses from 3 ranches in southern Texas, including East Foundation’s El Sauz and Santa Rosa ranches, and the Norias Division of the King Ranch® from 2018–2021. We calculated the percentage of individuals that were pregnant in each of the sample years and overall. We determined monthly average, maximum, and minimum fetus length. Of 488 nilgai cows, we found 386 to be pregnant (79%) and 214 to be pregnant with twins (56%). We found nilgai cows as young as 1-year old to have fetuses and therefore to have reached sexual maturity. Sex ratios of fetuses during any sampling year did not differ. We found ample evidence supporting our hypothesis that nilgai are fecund on their introduced range of southern Texas. To prevent nilgai overpopulation and associated problems, harvest management strategies should be implemented, specifically on nilgai cows.

Spot-tailed Earless Lizards (STEL; Plateau STEL, Holbrookia lacerata; and Tamaulipan STEL, Holbrookia subcaudalis) are lizard species that are in decline both in number and distribution. As a result, this species has been considered for federal threatened status and a 90-day finding by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service stated that federal protection may be warranted. To date, a decision for Endangered Species Act listing for the Plateau STEL has been denied, but a judgement for the Tamaulipan STEL has not yet been decided. The requests to list STEL as a threatened species initiated numerous studies to investigate the status of both species and to add to the knowledge base of STEL. Though many studies have been conducted, much of the resulting information exists in gray literature (e.g., governmental reports, project summaries, etc.) that are not readily available or peer-reviewed. Herein, we consolidate the research results from scientific literature, governmental reports, and petitions to assist future researchers of STEL. We describe the natural history of STEL, their current taxonomy, conservation status, and discuss potential causes for their decline. Our goal is to provide the needed background knowledge for future researchers and policy makers.

Texas tortoises (Gopherus berlandieri) were once considered common and abundant throughout southern Texas with densities as high as 16 tortoises per hectare. Today, density estimates are 0.25 tortoises per hectare, which constitutes about a 98% population decline. Because of their low numbers and elusive behavior, Texas tortoises can be difficult to find. We demonstrate the value of using a detector dog as a time saving method in locating Texas tortoises. We glued VHF radio transmitters onto 9 adult tortoises and released them in a 5-ha plowed and short-grass pasture that contained mesquite (Prosopsis glandulosa) mottes, habitat conducive for Texas tortoise habitat selection. We calculated the Detectability Index (DI) as the detection rate (# tortoises found/minute) × percent tortoises from the known population found within 60 minutes. We compared DIs via telemetry, detector dog, and “cold” (no equipment or knowledge) human searches. We used the time required to find all tortoises when a searcher had knowledge of locations as the baseline. Our baseline DI was 0.79, followed by telemetry (0.13) and detector dogs (0.11), while “cold” searches was 0.02. Telemetry, detector dog, and cold searches were 6-fold, 7-fold, and nearly 40-fold slower, respectively, than having knowledge of tortoise locations. However, the combination of using detector dogs with telemetry resulted in a 50% time savings than single methods. Telemetry was useful in locating a generalized area with a tortoise but a detector dog was 2X faster in visually locating the tortoise once the area was identified. Therefore, we recommend the use of detector dogs as a time-saving method when conducting research on Texas tortoises.

The spot-tailed earless lizards (STEL) are small, phrynosomatid lizards in the Holbrookia genus. Historically, these were considered two subspecies, the Plateau (Holbrookia lacerata lacerata) and Tamaulipan STEL (Holbrookia lacerata subcaudalis); however, each are now recognized as a distinct species (i.e., H. lacerata (plateau STEL) and H. subcaudalis (Tamaulipan STEL)). Recently, the plateau STEL was considered but not awarded federal protection under the Endangered Species Act by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; however, much uncertainty remains about the status of the Tamaulipan STEL and a conclusive policy decision has not been made. In this study, we developed a hybrid theoretic-empirical demographic model and conducted a population viability analysis (PVA) of the Tamaulipan STEL (H. subcaudalis). We evaluated the role of multiple demographic, environmental, and anthropogenic parameters and assessed population-level effects and extinction risks via sensitivity experiments. The baseline simulation demonstrated that Tamaulipan STEL have a relatively low probability of extinction under best case scenario conditions; however, results of elasticity analysis of the baseline simulation and sensitivity analysis of demographic parameters demonstrated that increases in juvenile mortality had the greatest effect on population growth rate and extinction risk. Simulations of anthropogenic impacts showed that small increases in habitat loss (e.g., 2%) had drastic negative effects on population size and persistence. Results from this study demonstrate the need for conservation and management actions aimed at protecting and increasing populations of young individuals (i.e., decreasing juvenile mortality) and promoting the conservation of available and suitable habitat for STEL throughout their range. These results must be considered in future conservation initiatives focused on this species to achieve successful conservation outcomes.

Texas horned lizards (Phrynosoma cornutum; hereafter THL) were once abundant throughout Texas; however, their distribution and abundance have decreased, and currently they are listed as a threatened species in the state. Detection of THL can be difficult because of their cryptic nature and sporadic distribution. Using indirect signs such as fecal pellets (i.e., scat) to determine occupancy is a widely practiced survey technique. However, it is unknown if scat size can be used to determine the age structure of THL. Our objectives were to determine 1) if THL scats were consistently produced and at consistent size in relation to lizard snout-vent length (SVL), 2) if THL scats remain intact in the environment, and 3) if scat length and diameter could be used as an indicator of THL size, which could be used to determine population age structure. We tested the feasibility of using scat morphometrics to estimate age class ratios, body size, and population estimates for THL. Data collection was conducted in 3 phases, which occurred from 2001-2019. Scats were collected daily for 6 days from 6 hatchling, 10 juvenile, and 10 adult THL collected from southern Texas. Texas horned lizards were measured for snout-to-vent length (mm) and categorized as either hatchling, juvenile, or adults based on estimates from the literature. On average, THL produced one scat/day, typically in the morning. Scat length and width increased as lizard size (i.e., SVL) increased with each age class. Scat size of each age class of THL was consistent between days; thus, objective one was met. Scats were measured for length and width (mm) and placed in direct sunlight for 90 days, submerged in water for 2 days, and placed in typical summer weather conditions of southern Texas. Texas horned lizard scat did not shrink or swell in size or decay due to environmental conditions during the 90-day experiment. Thus, THL scats do remain intact in the environment. We collected scat from 70 known-size THL from south-central Texas. Simple log-log regression models demonstrated a linear relationship (r(2) = 0.89) between loge (SVL) and loge (scat length, mm). Slopes were similar among age classes, but intercepts differed as expected. We tagged individual THL to follow growth rates through time. Thirteen of 20 tagged females produced 178 hatchlings, of which 56, 23, 19, and 6 were recaptured during their hatchling, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th year, respectively. Models for growth rates of known-age THL were not equal (eta p = 0.73, 2 F6,69 = 44.6, P < 0.0001) among age classes. Growth rates were faster in year 1 (0.101 +/- 0.003 mm d(-1)) and year 2 (0.099 +/- 0.007 mm day(-1)) and slowed (0.076 +/- 0.009 mm day(-1)) during their 3rd year. Scat from THL reliably can be used to estimate population age class structure, body size, and population estimates. However, our growth rate analyses suggest that THL appear to experience slower growth rates than during previous decades, and thus, THL require reevaluation as to what SVL size constitutes an adult THL.

Abstract: Habitat characteristics can have large effects on nest site selection of oviparous vertebrates. It is thought that habitat preference in many species is driven by natural selection because of habitat-specific fitness consequences. However, long-term studies on nesting of oviparous reptiles, in particular, are less common in comparison with other nesting vertebrates. As a result, specific habitat associations that define nesting habitat for many species are largely unknown. We studied habitat characteristics and selection of American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) nest sites in inland freshwater wetlands. We investigated the habitat characteristics associated with 112 nests studied during the 2013–2019 nesting seasons, and quantified habitat characteristics in relation to nest locations and random points. A nearest neighbor analysis indicated that American Alligator nests are not randomly distributed across wetlands, but are more representative of a clumped spatial distribution, suggestive of habitat preference and site selection. We measured habitat variables such as wetland vegetation cover, average water depth, island density, bank slope, canopy cover, and wet bulb globe temperature, as well as alligator population demographics such as relative adult proportion, at each nest and random site. Subsequently, we found that the best variables for predicting American Alligator nest site selection included island density, slope of bank, canopy cover, and wet bulb globe temperature. The best predictive model demonstrated that the odds of nest site selection increased with increasing canopy cover, wet bulb globe temperature, island density, and decreasing bank slope. These habitat choices presumably reduce the risk of nest predation and provide thermal cover for proper balance of nest site microclimate. Based on our results, practices focused on alligator nesting habitat should consider these specific habitat characteristics in outlining applied strategies and working toward management and conservation goals.

Ecological light pollution is now recognized as a significant source of ecosystem alteration. We documented that holiday lights are a seasonal source of light pollution that constitute an ecological trap for eastern fox squirrels (Sciurus niger). Texas A&M University-Kingsville (TAMUK) wildlife students surveyed a 2-km walking transect 5 times per month each month for the relative abundance and diel behavior of eastern fox squirrels and feral cats (Felis catus) on the TAMUK campus during 2018-2019. Eastern fox squirrels exhibited diurnal behaviors throughout the year but extended their foraging behavior nearly 4 hours after sunset with the addition of holiday lights. Feral cats and owls (Strigiformes) exhibited diurnal and nocturnal behaviors but conducted the majority of their hunting during crepuscular hours. We documented that monthly squirrel mortality increased 7-fold with the addition of holiday lights, possibly due to the extension of foraging time by squirrels. Although seasonal lighting is intended to be festive for humans, it can have negative consequences for eastern fox squirrels. Educating the public concerning the issue of light pollution on wildlife species is needed because the majority of the public appears unaware that bright lights can negatively alter wildlife behaviors. Reducing light intensity by either using less outdoor lights or perhaps using colored lights rather than clear white bulbs may lessen the negative effect on foraging behavior of squirrels.

Baylisascaris procyonis is a zoonotic parasite that can cause serious health issues in their intermediate hosts. Eggs of the parasite are shed in the feces of raccoons (Procyon lotor), the definitive host, and can remain viable in the environment for years. Temperatures at 49 C are the LD50 for B. procyonis eggs. Our objective was to determine the effect of prescribed fire as a lethal control technique for B. procyonis eggs. Aliquots of 1,000 viable B. procyonis eggs were placed on the soil surface and at a depth of 2 cm within 10×10 m grass plots consisting of approximately 2,000 kg/ha and 4,000 kg/ha fuel loads. In addition, aliquots of 1,000 viable B. procyonis eggs were placed at 0, 0.7, 1.2, and 1.8 m from the fire's edge and within a 1 m2 circle of bare ground on the leading edge, center of circle, and trailing edge of the fire of similar plots. Prescribed fire killed B. procyonis eggs on the soil surface up to 0.7 m from the fire's edge at fuel loads of 4,000 kg/ha but was ineffective at depths of 2 cm. Fuel loads of 2,000 kg/ha killed only 50% of B. procyonis eggs on the soil surface at the fire's edge but was not effective killing eggs at greater distances or at soil depths. Prescribed fire can be used to reduce the quantity of B. procyonis eggs on the soil surface within an environment but will not be effective in eradicating the parasite eggs.

Jamaican Boas, Chilabothrus subflavus (synonym Epicrates subflavus), comprise one of 13 endemic species of boas distributed throughout the Greater Antillean Islands and Lucayan Archipelago with many of these snake species facing an uncertain future in the wild. Habitat loss and fragmentation, invasive species, and human persecution have led to population declines, and therefore produced a need for an up-to-date assessment of the conservation status of the species. Although the true conservation status of Chilabothrus subflavus is unknown, it is currently listed as a Protected Animal under the Wild Life Protection Act of Jamaica, as Vulnerable by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature, and as an Endangered Foreign Species by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Habitat loss and fragmentation, coupled with introduced invasive species and human persecution, make it difficult to implement in situ management strategies to conserve the largest native snake species of Jamaica. Much of the information concerning Chilabothrus subflavus is challenging to obtain because it occurs within government documents and reports; therefore, no synthesis on the current state of knowledge of this species exists. Herein, we summarize the available published information on the biology, natural history, and ecology of Chilabothrus subflavus as well as review all data from captive breeding programs as it relates to the preservation and maintenance of genetic diversity in wild populations. We also discuss major threats this species faces in Jamaica and provide a multi-faceted list of research needs and recommendations to wildlife managers and researchers to enhance the conservation and protection of Chilabothrus subflavus.