Abstract Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz (family Brassicaceae) or false flax, a new oilseed plant for biodiesel and jet fuel production, has been cultivated for centuries in the temperate climate belt of Europe, as an annual summer or winter crop. Camelina is gaining popularity because of its low input requirements and its possibility of being used as a low greenhouse gas emission biofuel crop. Consecutive agronomic trials were carried out in northeast India (Assam), which is characterized by a sub-tropical climate. Three genotypes were used for the study. Comparisons at agronomic, physiological and biochemical levels were carried out. Results demonstrate that Camelina could grow and produce seeds in northeast India only during the winter season (October to March) when precipitation was absent, and the temperature was comparable to that of the temperate European belt in spring–summer. The oil quality and quantities showed small changes and remain in a suitable range for biofuel production. We infer that Camelina sativa has a high level of plasticity and ability to adapt in an area outside of its original habitat and can be cultivated in winter, as a second crop, in northeast India to provide a valuable feedstock for biofuel producers.

Success of improvement of Jatropha curcas depends on wide germplasm from different agro-ecological regions showing specific and attractive traits. The present study aimed to compare characteristics of 28 jatropha accessions in the light of enhancing the viability of the oil-based biodiesel chain. The tested jatropha accessions showed a wide range of responses. The plant morphology (height, branching and leaves) also indicated some vigorous genotypes. The growth was accompanied by a wide range of leaf gas exchange (CO2 and moist) that gave water use efficiency values ranging between 0.5 and 8.5. The morphological and physiological differences had no significant influence on seed weight (67-76 g/100 seeds). Oil yield with a mean value of 27.93% can be considered a medium yield for jatropha; only few accessions had oil over 30%. However, differences were well evident in free fatty acid (1.4-28.7%), phorbol ester (PE, 1.1-4.3 mg/g oil), tocopherol (73.7-907.8 ng/mg oil) and unsaturated fatty acid (78.8-90.8%) contents. The present data support studies to correlate genetic, morphological, physiological and biochemical traits in each genotype considered for future selection of ideotypes with low undesirable free fatty acid contents, and potential valorisation of secondary oil products (PEs, tocopherols) to enhance the economic viability and sustainability of the jatropha oil-based biodiesel chain.

Abstract A biocultural diversity approach integrates plant biology and germplasm dispersal processes with human cultural diversity. An increasing number of studies have identified cultural factors and ethnolinguistic barriers as the main drivers of the genetic diversity in crop plants. Little is known about how anthropogenic processes have affected the evolution of tree crops over the entire time scale of their interaction with humans. In Asia and the Mediterranean, common walnut (Juglans regia L.) and sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) have been economically and culturally important crops for millennia; there, in ancient times, they were invested with symbolic and religious significance. In this study, we detected a partial geographic congruence between the ethno‐linguistic repartition of human communities, the distribution of major cognitive sets of word‐related terms, and the inferred genetic clusters of common walnut and sweet chestnut populations across Eurasia. Our data indicated that isolation by distance processes, landscape heterogeneity and cultural boundaries might have promoted simultaneously human language diversification and walnut/chestnut differentiation across the same geographic macro‐regions. Hotspots of common walnut and sweet chestnut genetic diversity were associated with areas of linguistic enrichment in the Himalayas, Trans‐Caucasus, and Pyrenees Mountains, where common walnuts and sweet chestnuts had sustained ties to human culture since the Early Bronze Age. Our multidisciplinary approach supported the indirect and direct role of humans in shaping walnut and chestnut diversity across Eurasia from the EBA (e.g., Persian Empire and Greek–Roman colonization) until the first evidence of active selection and clonal propagation by grafting of both species. Our findings highlighted the benefit of an efficient integration of the relevant cultural factors in the classical genome (G) × environmental (E) model and the urgency of a systematic application of the biocultural diversity concept in the reconstruction of the evolutionary history of tree species.

Italy ranks second in Mediterranean basin as for production and export of olive oil. Oil production means proportional volumes of organic waste that need to be disposed of. Assuming that to be sustainable in the long term a production process must have a circular flow of energy and raw material, a system has been studied for organic waste valorization so to create a technical cycle where waste of olive production is used to a) extract polyphenols, b) produce energy through anaerobic digestion (AD), c) use organic residual from AD as a fertilizer for olive grove. The study was based on the assumption that the vegetation waters and the exhausted pomace have a high content of polyphenol molecules with high value added potential. The polyphenols, however, if left in the exhausted pomace give it bactericidal capacity which prevents extensive use as soil fertilizer as it interferes with soil microbiome. For the same bactericidal activity the exhausted pomace could show difficulty in AD for the production of biogas. For these reasons, at present a common destination for depleted pomace is incineration with consequent loss of organic matter and energy. Both for economic and environmental reasons the study was developed to manage the exhausted pomace in a circular economy perspective: extraction of polyphenols and subsequent anaerobic digestion of residual pomace with energy and digestate production. Data used in the study refer to an olive treatment plant of average medium/small dimensions. Results demonstrate the possibility to put in place an economically sustainable production cycle.

Black locust Robinia pseudoacacia L. is a fast growing tree, used in forest establishment. It is an economically important tree for tool production, obtaining timber and fuel as well as an important constituent element for landscapes. Though the tree is abundant, information on genetics, physiology, biology, wood quality and adaptability to different ecological conditions is limited and fragmented. The aim of this research was to study physiological and biochemical adaptation by comparing two black locust Clones that showed different responses to drought. The two Clones were exposed to different water regimes: Medium Stress and High Stress (50 and 25 % of water supplied to control). Physiological and biochemical measurements were made. Stress affected negatively the growth of both Clones. The effect of different stress intensity (MS and HS treatments) was observed on stem shape. When re-watered the stem showed partial recovery. Net photosynthesis rate in drought period did not show marked difference between the Clones. After soil rehydration both Clones recovered photosynthesis level. The Clones 1 did not show differences in osmotic potential when comparing Control and MS or HS trees. The Clone 2 showed increased osmotic potential in relation to stress intensity. The maximum potential in Clone 2 was comparable to the values for Clone 1. Amino acids, especially proline, increased in drought. The soluble sugars increased during the stress period in the stems of Clone 2. The increased absence of osmolytes increase in Clone 1 could be due to the absence of adaptive mechanism. Alternatively, osmolytes concentration was already too high to be increased more by drought. Different osmotic potential and changes during drought can be related to the growth during tree life. Selection of Clones according to osmolyte index could to select better trees for different climate zones.

The effects of UV-B irradiation and Biomin (a natural substance extracted from coal with active ingredients of humic acids) on the content of endogenous polyamines spermine, spermidine and putrescine, and free amino acids in shoots and roots of young triticale seedlings were investigated. Biomin was added to the nutrient medium 3 days prior to UV-B irradiation. The seedlings were treated with 7.7 kJ m−2 day−1 UV-B light for 4 days. The exposure to UV-B increased total free amino acids, while Biomin application alone did not affect considerably their content. The treatment with UV-B or Biomin alone provoked augmentation of conjugated and bound polyamine (PA) fractions. Data suggest that Biomin alleviates the negative consequences of UV-B stress, manifested by the normalized amino acid and polyamine amounts in the UV-B + Biomin-treated plants. This study demonstrates the protective effect of Biomin on triticale plants against UV-B irradiation, which could be related to alterations in PAs and amino acids pools.

The effects of copper and zinc salts on transgenic canola plants expressing rice transcription factor (TF) OsMYB4 were investigated. Transgenic plants (TPs), which showed a high OsMyb4 expression in response to either Cu or to Zn excess, were used for the current study. In leaves of TPs, the content of Cu was equal and the content of Zn was significantly higher than in non-transformed plants (NTPs). The TPs grown on an extremely high concentration of heavy metals (HMs; 150 μМ CuSO4 or 5 000 μМ ZnSO4) were able to survive for more than 15 d, while NTPs died after 7 - 9 d of incubation. This indicates that expression of OsMyb4 in canola plants improved their HM tolerance. The TPs tolerance to HMs was confirmed by a higher shoot biomass than that in NTPs. Excess of HMs caused oxidative stress (indicated by increase in malondialdehyde content) especially in leaves of NTPs. This data suggests a protective role of the OsMyb4 TF in oxidative stress. The HMs caused a lower decrease in activities of superoxide dismutase and guaiacol peroxidase in TPs than in NTPs. Higher tolerance of TPs to HMs was also suggested by a considerable increase in the content of low-molecular phenolic compounds, including flavonoids and anthocyanins, as well as proline (a potential antioxidant and chaperone). These data suggest that OsMYB4 may play a role as a positive regulator of phenylpropanoid pathway and proline synthesis. The created canola OsMyb4 TPs may be useful for future applications in phytoremediation of HM-polluted soils.

Common walnut (Juglans regia L) is an economically important species cultivated worldwide for its high-quality wood and nuts. It is generally accepted that after the last glaciation J. regia survived and grew in almost completely isolated stands in Asia, and that ancient humans dispersed walnuts across Asia and into new habitats via trade and cultural expansion. The history of walnut in Europe is a matter of debate, however. In this study, we estimated the genetic diversity and structure of 91 Eurasian walnut populations using 14 neutral microsatellites. By integrating fossil pollen, cultural, and historical data with population genetics, and approximate Bayesian analysis, we reconstructed the demographic history of walnut and its routes of dispersal across Europe. The genetic data confirmed the presence of walnut in glacial refugia in the Balkans and western Europe. We conclude that human-mediated admixture between Anatolian and Balkan walnut germplasm started in the Early Bronze Age, and between western Europe and the Balkans in eastern Europe during the Roman Empire. A population size expansion and subsequent decline in northeastern and western Europe was detected in the last five centuries. The actual distribution of walnut in Europe resulted from the combined effects of expansion/contraction from multiple refugia after the Last Glacial Maximum and its human exploitation over the last 5,000 years.

The work continues serial studies on short-term effects of medium-wave ultraviolet radiation (UV-B) at 12.5 kJ/m2 on plants. Special attention is paid to the rapid response of the antioxidant system. Free and conjugated forms of putrescine polyamines (putrescine, spermine, and spermidine), as well as those of cadaverine, are recognized to be constituents of the antioxidant system. These compounds were analyzed in plants 24 h after UV-B irradiation. Thellungiella salsuginea (Pallas) O.E.Schulz, Salvia officinalis L, Plantago major L., and Geum urbanum L. grown in aquatic culture under phytotron conditions were examined. The results support the hypothesis that putrescine plays the chief role in the plant defense response against medium-wave ultraviolet irradiation. Three of four plants manifested an increase in the content of this polyamine in leaves. It is the change that determines the enhanced total level of free polyamines. We failed to reveal a general tendency in dynamics of levels of conjugated forms of spermine, spermidine, and cadaverine; only conjugates of putrescine demonstrated a distinct increase. This study allows a conclusion that contributions of particular polyamines to the protective response primarily depend on the species to which the investigated plant belongs. It is likely that conjugated polyamines can be reserved as a pool necessary for rapid recovery of free polyamine levels.

The seed of Cannabis sativa L. is an expanding source of proteins and oil for both humans and animals. In this study, the proximate composition of a collection of hemp cultivars and accessions of different geographical origins grown under the same conditions for 1 year was analyzed in order to identify potential accessions to improve hemp cultivars. Fatty acids, tocopherols, and antinutritional components, as well as concentrations of crude protein and oil were quantified. The seed oil concentrations varied between 285 and 360 g kg(-1) dry seed (DS), while crude protein ranged between 316 and 356 g kg(-1) dry matter (DM). The seed oil was mainly composed of unsaturated fatty acids and, as expected, the dominant fatty acids were linoleic and α-linolenic acid. A high variability among the cultivars and accessions was also detected for polyphenolic content which ranged from 5.88 to 10.63 g kg(-1) DM, cv. Felina was the richest, whereas cv. Finola had the lowest polyphenolic content. Regarding antinutritional compounds in seed, a high variability was detected among all genotypes analyzed and phytic acid was particularly abundant (ranging between 43 and 75 g kg(-1) DM). In conclusion, our results reveal noticeable differences among hemp seed genotypes for antinutritional components, oil and protein content. Collectively, this study suggests that the hemp seed is an interesting product in terms of protein, oil and antioxidant molecules but a reduction of phytic acid would be desirable for both humans and monogastric animals. The high variability detected among the different genotypes indicates that an improvement of hemp seed might be possible by conventional and/or molecular breeding.

Jatropha curcas L., a multipurpose shrub, originated in Central America, is present worldwide throughout tropical and subtropical regions. In India, J. curcas had recently been promoted as a potential source to reduce dependence on crude oil. However, our knowledge concerning genotype, phenotype and environmental interaction is limited. In the present study the magnitude of phenotypic growth, oil yield and quality of promising jatropha sources from India have been evaluated at Jorhat in Assam. The molecular basis of the phenotypic diversity present in different accessions predominantly recovered from different locations in India was also verified. After 36 months of field planting, significant differences were noticed among all accessions tested for agronomical and physiological parameters. Free fatty acids, triglyceride acid composition and the presence of phorbol esters and tocopherols have been studied as they influence oil quality. Integration of biochemical parameters with physiological and agronomical data shows that, under the Jorhat environment, accessions expressing the best performance in the field are also the best in oil yield and quality. Genetic diversity among all 31 jatropha accessions has also been studied using different molecular markers. Our results suggest that phenotypic diversity does not seem to rely on polymorphic genomic DNA traits as inferred by the use of the Tubulin Based Polymorphism and the Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA molecular markers.

Walnut trees have been shown to be very sensitive to abiotic stresses, especially to soil hypoxia consequence of soil flooding or waterlogging. The aim of study was to search for correlation between polyphenols and tolerance to flooding stress. Two-three years old walnut trees, Juglans regia, J. nigra and interspecific hybrids, grown in pots were subjected to soil flooding in summer at full leaves expansion. In high sensitive J. regia trees, when flooded, the net CO2 assimilation rapidly decreased and 3-4 days of flooding were enough to block the recovery when soils was drained. In walnut hybrid (J. nigra x J. regia) and less sensitive J. regia genotypes, a longer resistance was observed; after 13 days of treatment leaves culd still be green and trees can recovered till to the normal photosynthesis when drained. J. nigra when flooded reduced net photosynthetic rate but maintained leaves without damages and with the capacity to recover CO2 assimilation. The data showed resistance of J. nigra and hybrid trees and of some J. regia genotypes to the stress. The HPLC analyses of polyphenols showed a modification of the patterns during the stress. The plants less tolerant to hypoxia have higher content of polyphenols distributed in a lot of compounds. Trees more tolerant, J. nigra, showed a very simple HPLC pattern. All samples contained juglone, more in less tolerant genotypes. Hydroxy juglone glucoside was detectable in all genotypes, but only in low quantity, it increased in trees with high resistance to hypoxia and decreased in J. regia. Less flooded tolerant J. regia genotypes have higher polyphenols and juglone content. The metabolism of hydroxyl juglone glucoside could be involved in a mechanism of juglone detoxification during the hypoxia to give stress tolerance.

Common walnut (Juglans regia L) is an economically important species cultivated worldwide for its wood and nuts. It is generally accepted that J. regia survived and grew spontaneously in almost completely isolated stands in its Asian native range after the Last Glacial Maximum. Despite its natural geographic isolation, J. regia evolved over many centuries under the influence of human management and exploitation. We evaluated the hypothesis that the current distribution of natural genetic resources of common walnut in Asia is, at least in part, the product of ancient anthropogenic dispersal, human cultural interactions, and afforestation. Genetic analysis combined with ethno-linguistic and historical data indicated that ancient trade routes such as the Persian Royal Road and Silk Road enabled long-distance dispersal of J. regia from Iran and Trans-Caucasus to Central Asia, and from Western to Eastern China. Ancient commerce also disrupted the local spatial genetic structure of autochthonous walnut populations between Tashkent and Samarkand (Central-Eastern Uzbekistan), where the northern and central routes of the Northern Silk Road converged. A significant association between ancient language phyla and the genetic structure of walnut populations is reported even after adjustment for geographic distances that could have affected both walnut gene flow and human commerce over the centuries. Beyond the economic importance of common walnut, our study delineates an alternative approach for understanding how the genetic resources of long-lived perennial tree species may be affected by the interaction of geography and human history.

Camelina (Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz) is an attractive alternative and sustainable oilseed crop for multipurpose uses, including as a biofuel feedstock. To evaluate the value of C. sativa in Lombardia (north Italy), seven genotypes were cultivated under different climates of two consecutive years and growing seasons; quality and quantity of seed, oil, and flour were analyzed. Genotypes mainly influenced seed weight (0.98-1.56 g/1000 seeds), protein (245-401 mg/g), glucosinolates, and phytic acid. Oil content (27.5%-37.2%) and fatty acid (FA) composition varied with year and growing season among genotypes. Oils were rich in linolenic and linoleic acids (68.4%-80.8%). The monounsaturated acids ranged from 16.4%25.6%, although erucic acid was much lower at 4.30%. Saturated FAs represented a small fraction. Low free FAs content (0.01%-0.81%) and different amounts of tocopherols (0.44-2.69 mu g/mg) in oils depended on years. Correlations among seed and biochemical traits were found. Genotypes with low protein and high phytic acid contents would not be the best for flour quality. Genotypes showing high levels of protein and C18:3/C18:2 fatty acids ratio could be useful for humans and livestock. Genotype with relatively high C18:1 fatty acid content can be used mainly for biofuel production. Altogether, the data indicated that C. sativa cultivation could be promoted as an economically profitable oilseed crop in north Italian environments.

A natural substance extracted from coal with humic acids as its active ingredients, namely Biomin, was added to nutrient medium and applied to triticale roots 3 days prior to UV-B irradiation treatment. UV-B treatment increased malondialdehyde and anthocyanin contents and the activities of peroxidase and superoxide dismutase, while it decreased chlorophyll content, fresh weight, and shoot length. Catalase and total phenolics content did not change in UV-B-treated shoots. The pretreatment with Biomin showed favorable effects on growth, decreased the oxidative damage provoked by UV-B irradiation, increased the content of UV-B-absorbing compounds, and positively influenced enzymatic activities. The application of Biomin on triticale plants was beneficial for counteracting the UV-B-induced oxidative stress by increasing the content of nonenzymatic antioxidants and antioxidant enzyme activities involved in detoxification of reactive oxygen species.

The effect of spermine (Spm) treatment on the content of polyamines (PAs) and activities of antioxidant enzymes in the roots and leaves of Thellungiella salsuginea (Pall.) O.E. Schulz plants grown under optimal conditions were studied. The genes encoding three forms of ascorbate peroxidase (APX; APX1, APX2, and APX4) and genes of key enzymes of proline metabolism (Pro, P5CS1, 1P5CD) were identified, and their expression intensity was measured. Six-day-old plants were treated with Spm (1 and 2 mM) and with the inhibitor of polyamine oxidase (PAO) activity, N,N-(2-hydroxyethyl)hydrazine (HEH, 1 and 2 mM) separately or in combination by adding these compounds to nutrient medium. Roots and leaves responded differently to Spm treatment. In the leaves, the content of PAs reduced due to a decreased in the spermidine (Spd) content, whereas in the roots the total pool of PAs increased due to putrescine (Put) and Spd accumulation. Treatment with Spm activated PAO in the roots but not in the leaves; HEH removed this increase, but the intercellular Spm concentration was not substantially changed. It was suggested that treatment with Spm suppressed the biosynthesis of intracellular Spm and, on the other hand, stimulated the reverse conversion of Spm into Spd and further into Put due to the activation of one of the PAO isoforms. Plant treatment with Spm was not accompanied by a noticeable activation enzymes degrading hydrogen peroxide in the roots: APX, (except of peroxidase II), and catalase. However, the activity of Cu/Zn-SOD doubled and the activity of Mn-SOD reduced. In the leaves, slight activation of peroxidases I and III, the inhibition of Cu/Zn- and Mn-SOD, differential changes in the time-coursed of gene expression of three APX isoforms, and activated gene expression of key enzymes of Pro metabolism were observed. At the same time, the level of MDA did not increase either in the leaves or in the roots. This indicates that treatment of Th. salsuginea plants with Spm under optimal growing conditions did not enhance ROS generation and did not manifest prooxidant properties.