Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs) are a significant global health issue, affecting over a billion people and hindering progress in economically disadvantaged areas, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa. This study explores the complex relationship between socioeconomic factors and health inequalities in the region, highlighting the diverse impacts of NTDs and offering forward-looking recommendations. Despite global efforts to combat these diseases, significant gaps remain in achieving eradication in endemic areas. Key strategies for progress include expanding educational initiatives, engaging broader global health communities, and addressing the stigma faced by NTD victims. Therefore, recognizing the multifaceted impact of NTDs, it is essential to integrate intersectionality into health policies and action plans to tackle the challenges these diseases pose in Sub-Saharan Africa and globally.

Rabies remains a significant public health threat in Africa, and disproportionately impacts vulnerable populations to cause thousands of deaths annually. Rabies is a preventable disease and control efforts include a global target of rabies elimination by 2030. But, challenges impede this goal, such as limited access to vaccines, insufficient public awareness, and weak healthcare infrastructure. This review evaluates the barriers to vaccination coverage, including logistical constraints in vaccine delivery, high costs, and the lack of sustained funding. Additionally, the review discusses innovative strategies and best practices for rabies control, such as community-based education programs, and the integration of One Health approaches. This study synthesizes current evidence, to emphasize the urgent need for coordinated efforts, increased investment, and policy reforms to achieve sustainable rabies elimination in Africa.

The Monkeypox virus, commonly abbreviated as mpox, is a viral zoonosis that is experiencing a resurgence in prevalence. It is endemic to regions of West and Central Africa that are characterized by dense forested areas. Various measures pertaining to animals, humans, and the environment have been recognized as potential factors and catalysts for the spread of the disease throughout the impacted regions of Africa. This study examines the various factors contributing to the transmission of the virus in Nigeria, with a particular focus on the animal-human and inter-human modes of transmission in rural communities and healthcare facilities. The One Health approach was emphasized as crucial in the prevention and management of this issue. Literature suggests that preventing repeated zoonotic introductions could potentially halt the transmission of the mpox virus from animal to human hosts, leading to a potential decrease in human infections.

Listeria monocytogenes causes listeriosis, an infectious and potentially fatal disease of animals and humans. A diverse network of transcriptional regulators, including LysR-type catabolite control protein C (CcpC), is critical for the survival of L. monocytogenes and its ability to transition into the host environment. In this study, we explored the physiological and genetic consequences of deleting ccpC and the effects of such deletion on the ability of L. monocytogenes to cause disease. We found that ccpC deletion did not impact hemolytic activity, whereas it resulted in significant reductions in phospholipase activities. Western blotting revealed that the ΔccpC strain produced significantly reduced levels of the cholesterol-dependent cytolysin LLO relative to the wildtype F2365 strain. However, the ΔccpC mutant displayed no significant intracellular growth defect in macrophages. Furthermore, ΔccpC strain exhibited reduction in plaque numbers in fibroblasts compared to F2365, but plaque size was not significantly affected by ccpC deletion. In a murine model system, the ΔccpC strain exhibited a significantly reduced bacterial burden in the liver and spleen compared to the wildtype F2365 strain. Interestingly, the deletion of this gene also enhanced the survival of L. monocytogenes under conditions of H2O2-induced oxidative stress. Transcriptomic analyses performed under H2O2-induced oxidative stress conditions revealed that DNA repair, cellular responses to DNA damage and stress, metalloregulatory proteins, and genes involved in the biosynthesis of peptidoglycan and teichoic acids were significantly induced in the ccpC deletion strain relative to F2365. In contrast, genes encoding internalin, 1-phosphatidylinositol phosphodiesterase, and genes associated with sugar-specific phosphotransferase system components, porphyrin, branched-chain amino acids, and pentose phosphate pathway were significantly downregulated in the ccpC deletion strain relative to F2365. This finding highlights CcpC as a key factor that regulates L. monocytogenes physiology and responses to oxidative stress by controlling the expression of important metabolic pathways.

Aborode, Abdullahi Tunde; Toluwalashe, Soyemi; Oko, Christian Inya; Folorunso, Tayo Nafisat; Ubechu, Samuel Chinonso; Badri, Rawa; Ottoho, Edima; Odok, Gabriel Nku Jr; Kamaldeen, Ayyatullahi Bolanle; Babatunde, Abdulhammed Opeyemi; Esther, Olorunshola Oluwadamilola; Anidu, Babatunde Shuaib; Ogunleye, Seto Charles; Olorunshola, Mercy Mayowa Author Information

The persistence of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the environment and their possible negative health impacts have attracted global attention. In Nigeria, there have been instances of PFAS contamination in many environmental areas, such as water sources. This paper raised concerns regarding limited research of PFAS in Nigeria, potential human exposure, and environmental consequences in Nigeria. This paper examines the present status of PFAS research in Nigeria, the sources from which contamination occurs, the environmental effects, and the implications for human health. This underscores the holes in understanding and areas of focus for study, underscoring the necessity for thorough evaluations of potential risks and regulatory actions to reduce exposure to PFAS and protect public health and the environment in Nigeria.

Faecal Microbial Transplantation (FMT), have been shown to be successfully managed along with a variety of gastrointestinal disorders, including Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). FMT is a medical procedure that involves a donor transferring healthy gut bacteria to the recipient. The effectiveness of FMT is thought to be due to the ability of the healthy gut to restore balance to the recipient's microbiome, which is the community of microorganisms that inhabit the gastrointestinal tract. One of the key advantages of FMT is that it is a relatively simple and low-cost treatment option, compared to other therapies that may be more invasive or require long-term medication use. However, FMT is not without its limitations, including the potential for the transfer of infectious agents from the donor to the recipient and the potential for negative side effects in some patients. In this research, we discuss the current state of the evidence on FMT, including its potential benefits and risks, as well as future directions for research in this area.

The (re)emergence of several infectious zoonoses underlines the need for the re-evaluation of the transmission patterns and key players responsible for effective inter-species transfer of diseases. Anthrax is caused by Bacillus anthracis, a zoonotic rod-shaped, Gram-positive, spore-forming bacterium that is highly fatal to both human and animal populations. B. anthracis is widespread across several regions of the world, including Africa, Asia, southern Europe, North and South America, and Australia, and it has a remarkably high attendant impact on the sustainability and profitability of livestock. The current trend in the global distribution of anthrax necessitates an urgent contextual understanding of the key drivers of the spread of B. anthracis in different parts of the world toward the end goal of an anthrax-free world. The understanding of the drivers is integral for the development of control and preventive measures, and also the development of agents such as therapeutics and vaccines against B. anthracis. This review presents a holistic description of the transmission pattern and epidemiology of B. anthracis, and updates on the diagnostic techniques and approaches available for the detection of B. anthracis. In addition, this review highlights plausible prevention and control strategies for the bacterium. This review further underscores the need for participatory epidemiology, hygiene, and safety protocols, the establishment of comprehensive surveillance systems, and global collaborative efforts toward vaccine development as critical steps in controlling anthrax.

ABSTRACT Listeria monocytogenes is a foodborne bacterial pathogen that causes listeriosis. Positive regulatory factor A (PrfA) is a pleiotropic master activator of virulence genes of L. monocytogenes that becomes active upon the entry of the bacterium into the cytosol of infected cells. L. monocytogenes can survive and multiply at low temperatures; this is accomplished through the maintenance of appropriate membrane fluidity via branched-chain fatty acid (BCFA) synthesis. Branched-chain α-keto acid dehydrogenase (BKD), which is composed of four polypeptides encoded by lpd , bkdA1 , bkdA2 , and bkdB , is known to play a vital role in BCFA biosynthesis. Here, we constructed BKD-deficient Listeria strains by in-frame deletion of lpd , bkdA1 , bkdA2 , and bkdB genes. To determine the role in in vivo and in vitro , mouse model challenges, plaque assay in murine L2 fibroblast, and intracellular replication in J744A.1 macrophage were conducted. BKD-deficient strains exhibited defects in BCFA composition, virulence, and PrfA-regulon function within the host cells. Transcriptomics analysis revealed that the transcript level of the PrfA-regulon was lower in Δ bkdA1 strain than those in the wild-type. This study demonstrates that L. monocytogenes strains lacking BKD complex components were defective in PrfA-regulon function, and full activation of wild-type prfA may not occur within host cells in the absence of BKD. Further study will investigate the consequences of BKD deletion on PrfA function through altering BCFA catabolism. IMPORTANCE Listeria monocytogenes is the causative agent of listeriosis, a disease with a high mortality rate. In this study, we have shown that the deletion of BKD can impact the function of PrfA and the PrfA-regulon. The production of virulence proteins within host cells is necessary for L. monocytogenes to promote its intracellular survival and is likely dependent on membrane integrity. We thus report a link between L. monocytogenes membrane integrity and the function of PrfA. This knowledge will increase our understanding of L. monocytogenes pathogenesis, which may provide insight into the development of antimicrobial agents.

Artificial intelligence (AI) is a fast-paced technological advancement in terms of its application to various fields of science and technology. In particular, AI has the potential to play various roles in veterinary clinical practice, enhancing the way veterinary care is delivered, improving outcomes for animals and ultimately humans. Also, in recent years, the emergence of AI has led to a new direction in biomedical research, especially in translational research with great potential, promising to revolutionize science. AI is applicable in antimicrobial resistance (AMR) research, cancer research, drug design and vaccine development, epidemiology, disease surveillance, and genomics. Here, we highlighted and discussed the potential impact of various aspects of AI in veterinary clinical practice and biomedical research, proposing this technology as a key tool for addressing pressing global health challenges across various domains.

Rabies remains a significant public health challenge in Africa, primarily burdening impoverished rural communities, with children and young adults being the most vulnerable. Achieving complete elimination in the continent by 2030 requires a coordinated effort hinged on the One Health concept, external support from international organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO) and the national governments of endemic countries. Here, we reviewed the various socio-economic and ecological factors influencing the spatial distribution and molecular epidemiology of the disease. To mitigate the transmission of rabies on a global scale, and specifically in Africa, we proposed a multi-pronged approach including enhanced access to healthcare resources, cultural sensitization and massive health promotion with efforts geared towards promoting responsible dog and pet ownership and population management, effective monitoring, and mitigation of environmental changes.

# Background Cholera and COVID-19 represent a dual burden on healthcare systems, especially in low-resource settings. Despite their significant impact, data on their co-occurrence and interaction remain unreliable. This is primarily due to limited and fragmented data availability, which affects our understanding of the relationship between these two diseases. This systematic review aims to address these gaps by summarizing the current state of knowledge and identifying specific data deficiencies. # Methods A comprehensive search was conducted on PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. The search was limited to studies published from January 2020 to December 2023. Specific search terms included "cholera and COVID-19 co-infection," "cholera outbreaks during COVID-19," and "impact of COVID-19 on cholera." The Studies were selected based on predefined criteria, including relevance to the topic, quality of the data, and geographical scope. The Studies were selected based on predefined criteria, including relevance to the topic, quality of the data, and geographical scope. # Results A total of 18 studies were identified, encompassing a range of geographic locations and study designs. A meta-analysis revealed a strong positive correlation (95% confidence interval, CI=0.80, 0.99) between COVID-19 and cholera coinfection and comorbidity in Africa and Asia. Specifically, the correlation was observed between the frequency of cholera cases and the incidence of COVID-19, highlighting how the pandemic exacerbated cholera outbreaks in certain regions. # Conclusions The findings highlight the essential need for improved data collection and surveillance to better understand and manage the dual burden of cholera and COVID-19. The systematic review also highlights significant publication bias and data limitations, suggesting that future research should focus on addressing these gaps through enhanced data collection methods and rigorous analysis. Recommendations include developing targeted interventions to improve vaccination coverage and water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) practices, alongside strategies to counteract misinformation about vaccines. **PROSPERO Registration ID: CRD42023485040**

The increasing spread and occurrence of diphtheria warrants not only global rescue but also a more robust participatory involvement of the community members and stakeholders. The disease, diphtheria is caused by a highly contagious vaccine-preventable bacterium known as exotoxin-producing Corynebacterium diphtheriae (C. diphtheriae). C. diphtheriae is of important public health concern due to its ability to cause grave diseases across all ages of the human population. The transmission of C. diphtheriae is principally via direct contact or indirect contact with contaminated air through respiratory droplets. The gravity of the disease caused by C. diphtheriae is due to its ability to produce exotoxins that cause classical signs of darkness or whitish patches at the back of the throat alongside signs such as sore throat and fever. The pathogenesis of diphtheria involves the paralysis of the airway through the activities of the toxins, resulting in difficulties in breathing and swallowing and a distinctive barking cough. The case fatality rate of diphtheria is currently known to range between 5 and 10% but can be up to 40%, especially in young children. Diphtheria remains a human health problem because of the incessant occurrence among low-income countries, especially those with impeded access to vaccine production and delivery, as well as increasing environmental drivers of infectious diseases such as poor sanitation, reduced or lack of access to potable water, etc. According to the Nigeria Centre for Disease Control (NCDC), diphtheria is currently a priority disease in Nigeria that must be reported when suspected by healthcare workers in any health facility directly to the Local Government Area (LGA) Disease Surveillance and Notification Officer (DSNO) either directly or through the health facility surveillance focal person within 24 h. It is, therefore, the responsibility of the DNSO to report directly to the state epidemiologist, who subsequently reports to the NCDC. The severity attributable to C. diphtheriae is a clear indication of the urgent need for the involvement of the community members and stakeholders for the minimal reduction and control of diphtheria in the Nigerian communities. The current trend of diphtheria in Nigeria across 27 states indicates an urgent need for both global interventions and communal participation. Since the NCDC was notified of the occurrence of diphtheria in Lagos and Kano in December 2022, other parts of the country have been monitored, while there continues to be increasing case reports1. As of July 2023, ~4160 suspected cases have been reported in Nigeria, with a total of 1532 confirmed cases and a case fatality rate of 8.9% (total of 137 deaths). While there are pockets of new cases being confirmed across several states, the majority of the confirmed cases are confined to Kano, Yobe, Kaduna, Katsina, Federal Capital Territory, and Lagos. It is noteworthy to know that the current outbreak affects children between the ages of 2 and 14, mostly among unvaccinated children. It is indeed alarming to know that a total of 1257 confirmed cases were reported, accounting for 81.9% of the total 1534 that occurred among unvaccinated individuals (Fig. 1)2. The significant impacts of diphtheria on children are indicative of significant impacts on the socioeconomic future of Nigeria. The current trend of diphtheria in Nigeria demonstrates that C. diphtheriae is an opportunistic bacterium causing preventable disease and requiring global interventions. The high occurrence among unvaccinated individuals also indicates the need for vaccine interventions and clearly shows the critical role of herd immunity among the human population. Vaccine production is of utmost important and would be helpful to secure the future of Nigeria free of high fatality attributable to diphtheria. The interventions implemented by the NCDC have demonstrated efficacy in enhancing the coordination and monitoring of diphtheria, as well as strengthening surveillance and response activities. These interventions include the establishment of rapid response teams in various states, the standardization of laboratory facilities to facilitate timely identification of C. diphtheriae, the implementation of training and awareness programs, and the assessment of drug sensitivity, among others. Notwithstanding these endeavors, there persists a rising occurrence of breakouts and a growing need for enhanced joint initiatives, particularly with regard to neighborhood residents. The present obstacles hindering the effective response and subsequent intervention to address the outbreak of diphtheria in Nigeria encompass various factors, including but not limited to the insufficient establishment of data collection and reporting mechanisms, resistance within communities toward interventions such as vaccination and medication, the prevailing occurrence of other infectious diseases like Lassa fever, cholera, mpox, and meningitis, as well as the presence of a humanitarian emergency situation. Moreover, it is important to note that socioeconomic issues, particularly the presence of insecurity, have a significant influence on the effective implementation of healthcare services and interventions. The decreased demand for diphtheria vaccine and the subsequent global initiatives to address this issue may have repercussions within the population of Nigeria. The current recommendations by the NCDC state that diphtheria vaccination should be included in the childhood immunization schedule. This should be done using three doses of the pentavalent vaccine, which contains diphtheria toxoid. The recommended timing for these doses is at the 6th, 10th, and 14th week of a child’s life World Health Organization’s (WHO)3. Individuals displaying symptoms consistent with diphtheria should adhere to stringent isolation protocols and promptly implement preventive measures to mitigate the potential transmission of diphtheria to susceptible individuals. Prompt access to the nearest healthcare facility for diagnosis and timely treatment is of utmost importance for vulnerable patients or anyone exhibiting symptoms indicative of diphtheria. In relation to prevention, it is recommended that individuals who have had any type of contact with infected individuals should have a booster dose of the vaccination and be continuously monitored for the onset of diphtheria, in addition to receiving antibiotic interventions. Healthcare providers are advised to remain vigilant for indications of diphtheria in all patients they encounter, and they should actively promote knowledge about the disease, adherence to effective vaccination protocols, appropriate treatment, and the implementation of preventive measures. Healthcare providers should consistently utilize suitable personal protective equipment when responding to patients, regardless of the patient’s preliminary diagnosis, as they face a higher susceptibility to diphtheria compared to the general population. The significance of early detection and containment of diphtheria in Nigeria becomes evident when comparing the recommendations of the NCDC with those of the WHO. In Nigeria, it is imperative for the country to prioritize the establishment of well-equipped laboratory facilities capable of promptly and accurately identifying C. diphtheriae. This step is fundamental and holds significant importance in the overall healthcare system of Nigeria. The mitigation of underreported outbreaks, stemming from either insufficient reporting channels or community opposition, necessitates the enhancement of public trust in healthcare systems by timely interventions and the cultivation of a high standard of professionalism among healthcare personnel. In addition, it is imperative to provide assistance in the distribution and implementation of vaccines to those with little education through the adoption of a participatory epidemiology strategy. This method entails the active engagement of healthcare practitioners and community stakeholders in the intervention process. The efficacy of participatory epidemiology has been established in several disease epidemics, including African sleeping sickness and tuberculosis. The inclusion of participatory epidemiology is crucial in the context of diphtheria mitigation within the human population, given the significant role that vaccination plays in this process. The implementation of travel restrictions by national institutions and authorities can contribute to the containment of diphtheria transmission to susceptible populations. Additionally, administering booster vaccines to those who are required to travel can be beneficial in preventing the spread of the disease. In summary, the effectiveness of the NCDC’s ongoing initiatives and the interventions implemented by the WHO in curbing the transmission of diphtheria in Nigeria hinges upon the active engagement and involvement of community residents. The active engagement of individuals in placing faith in healthcare personnel and the health system in Nigeria is crucial in the endeavor to effectively mitigate the continued transmission of diphtheria. The apprehension among persons over the administration of vaccines can be mitigated through the implementation of comprehensive awareness campaigns and the adoption of a participatory epidemiology strategy. The Nigerian government should prioritize increased investment in education and research, particularly in the field of research and development, with the aim of facilitating the development of vaccines and therapeutics. There exists a necessity to enhance the level of collaboration between healthcare facilities and educational and research organizations, both domestically and internationally. Significantly, there exists a necessity for enhanced worldwide assistance from the WHO and developed nations with regard to the advancement of vaccines and therapeutics, specifically directed toward institutional research laboratories and healthcare facilities. Ethical approval Not applicable. There is no approval obtained for this editorial as it is not needed nor required. Consent Not applicable. Sources of funding We have not received any funding support to write and publish this editorial. Author contribution S.C.O.: conceptualize, designed, and wrote the manuscript; M.M.O.: wrote and reviewed the manuscript. Conflicts of interest disclosure The authors have no conflicts of interest. Research registration unique identifying number (UIN) Not applicable. Guarantor Not applicable.

Usutu virus (USUV) is an arthropod-borne virus (arbovirus) of the flaviviridae family (genus Flavivirus) which belong to the Japanese encephalitis virus complex. Culex mosquitoes have been implicated in the transmission of this pathogen. The major susceptible hosts of USUV are migratory birds, thereby potentiating its ability to spread from one region to another globally. Nigeria has the largest economy in Africa with a significant percentage of the gross domestic product relying on the agricultural and animal production industry. This review explores the zoonotic potentials of the virus in Africa, especially Nigeria, with special focus on the devastating sequelae this might lead to in the future if necessary precautionary policies are not enacted and adopted to bolster the surveillance system for mosquito-borne viruses.

A World Health Organization (WHO) report estimates that 2.1 billion people globally lack access to safe water at home and that 4.5 billion people use water without proper sanitary measures1. Since the year 2000, billions of people have had access to basic sanitation and drinking water services, and 361 000 children under 5 still die from diarrhoea, typhoid, cholera, hepatitis A, and dysentery because of contaminated water and poor sanitation annually1. Approximately two billion people currently experience significant stress attributable directly or indirectly to water, and by 2030, 700 million people may be displaced as a result of water scarcity1. Although safe water, sanitation, and hygiene at home should not be a luxury reserved for the wealthy or those living in urban centres, most of these water-related inadequacies are observed in Africa, western Asia, and some rural areas in other areas places1. Unfortunately, in the United States, Jacksonville, Mississippi’s capital and largest city, recently experienced one of the most severe urban water crises, including flooding and drought, among other things, in 2022. The recent problems further underscore the vulnerability of the water systems across the country, which is likely to exacerbate the impacts of climate change in the coming years if not overcome. The limited resources available to effectively invest in infrastructure improvements is a major identified contributing factor in the Jacksonville crisis, a problem many other municipalities face. Jacksonville is geographically located within one of the poorest states in the country, with a high proportion of low-income earners, which serves as a factor in undermining individuals’ ability to have the financial capacity required for executing public services such as potable water infrastructure and wastewater management2. Infrastructure should serve as a shared foundation for the economy, the environment, and public health across neighbourhoods and towns. Unfortunately, in some locations, it is regularly ignored or subverted, preventing many communities from having access to inexpensive and safe transportation and housing and putting residents’ health at risk. Even though Mississippi has historically struggled with communal integration and bridging economic divides, there is evidence that bridging these community disparities is critical for instituting infrastructure plans and projects intended to lessen risks, control costs, and give long-term benefits. The water catastrophe in Jacksonville was just the most recent of numerous acute and long-term public health issues. Water main breaks and company closures have occurred in previous winters, and there have also been persistent worries about water quality, accessibility, and cost. Along with 6 billion gallons of barely treated sewage, half a billion gallons of untreated sewage spilled into the Pearl River in the previous year2. Lead pollution has also been a problem, much like in Flint, Michigan, and other places. In 2016, Jacksonville issued a warning to residents regarding lead quantities in the water. Still, in lieu of replacing every pipe, a move that could cost the city billions of dollars it does not have, it went forward with a less expensive corrosion control contract. Homeowners are also still responsible for maintaining lead pipes and other health hazards, even though some of them are struggling to pay their bills. In 2019, the city declared it would turn off the water for 20 000 residents to recover $45 million in unpaid bills2. However, infrastructure can also serve as a foundation for long-lasting benefits, as it can result in long-term expenses. Jacksonville’s historical infrastructure problems can be better identified and solved to open up new possibilities. To do this, public and private leaders at the state, regional, and local levels – including water utilities – need to discuss current and future infrastructure requirements in terms of the most endangered households, engage with a wider range of residents, and test new initiatives and ideas. For instance, better coordinated ‘One Water’ planning initiatives can bring together previously uninvolved groups like community-based organizations, workforce development agencies, and others while bridging policy and funding gaps among municipal officials. Enhancing customer assistance programs and more accurately assessing the requirements for affordable water can positively impact public health. As a result, rising temperatures affect precipitation patterns and the entire water cycle, exacerbating water scarcity and water-related dangers (such as floods and droughts). Climate change is intrinsically linked to the two. Due to the frightening rate at which our climate is changing, it is now much more difficult for the world’s poorest people to acquire safe water. More frequent and severe floods contaminate vulnerable water sources, while extended droughts cause springs to dry up. Climate change is not only causing the world to warm by almost 1.2°C juxtaposed to pre-industrial times, but it is also intensifying precipitation events, increasing the likelihood that they will overwhelm already stressed systems. The effects are primarily felt in lower-income and minority areas, such as Jackson, which has a quarter of its population living in poverty3. Climate change may alter not only the water cycle but also how much water we need and how we use it. Alas, it is conspicuous that there is an urgent need for sustainable, affordable, and scalable water solutions to combat this menace in Jacksonville. With that in mind, the following pragmatic recommendations are indispensable in combatting this menace, they include. First, climate officials must prioritize water in their action plans because good water management strengthens social cohesion, safeguards public health, and saves lives. By defending ecosystems and lowering carbon emissions from water and sanitation transit and treatment, it also lessens climate change itself. To balance the water requirements of communities, industry, agriculture, and ecosystems, politicians, government officials, and other private stakeholders must work together across national boundaries4. Therefore, innovative funding for water resource management will be a sound investment, generate employment, and aid governments in achieving their objectives regarding water and climate. Increasing carbon storage is also important. Peatlands can store at least twice as much carbon as all of the trees on Earth, while mangrove soils may sequester up to three or four times more carbon than terrestrial soils. As a result of their ability to dramatically slow down climate change, these ecosystems should be protected and strengthened. Coastal mangroves and marshes are efficient and reasonably priced natural barriers to floods, extreme weather events, and erosion because the vegetation helps control water flow and binds the soil in flood plains, riverbanks, and coasts. Assemble the rain. Rainwater is collected along certain banks and coasts. Rainfall collection: Having the ability to store rainwater promotes shock resistance and provides resources during dry times, which is especially useful in regions with variable rainfall distribution. Rooftop capture for small-scale usage and surface dams to delay run-off to reduce soil erosion and promote aquifer recharge are just a couple of the ways available. Putting climate-smart agriculture into practice. Examples of such approaches include drip irrigation, reducing post-harvest losses and food waste, converting trash into nutrients, biofuels, or biogas, and using conservation methods to improve organic matter to promote soil moisture retention4. Long-term solutions to the water problem depend heavily on education and health awareness campaigns5. In reality, all forms of consumption – from individual use to the supply chains of large corporations – need to be fundamentally reformed to adapt to future water scarcity. Lastly, using groundwater for a purpose – groundwater – is often overused and polluted, while in other locations, its amount is unknown. To adapt to climate change and satisfy the needs of a growing population, groundwater must be explored, protected, and used sustainably. Ethical approval The information provided in the manuscript does not require an ethics application or approval. Consent No patients were sorted. Not applicable. Sources of funding Not applicable. Author contribution A.T.A.: study concept or design. All the authors were involved in the research data/images generation and manuscript writing and revision. Conflicts of interest disclosure There are no conflicts of interest. Research registration unique identifying number (UIN) Not applicable. Guarantor Fatima Abdirazak Ahmed. Provenance and peer review Not applicable. Data availability statement Available through the manuscript (with included figures). No extra data was generated.

There are overwhelming reports on the promotional effect of hypoxia on the malignant behavior of various forms of cancer cells. This has been proposed and tested exhaustively in the light of cancer immunotherapy. However, there could be more interesting functions of a hypoxic cellular micro-environment than malignancy. There is a highly intricate crosstalk between hypoxia inducible factor (HIF), a transcriptional factor produced during hypoxia, and nuclear factor kappa B (NF‐κB) which has been well characterized in various immune cell types. This important crosstalk shares common activating and inhibitory stimuli, regulators, and molecular targets. Impaired hydroxylase activity contributes to the activation of HIFs. Inflammatory ligands activate NF-κB activity, which leads to the expression of inflammatory and anti-apoptotic genes. The eventual sequelae of the interaction between these two molecular players in immune cells, either bolstering or abrogating functions, is largely cell-type dependent. Importantly, this holds promise for interesting therapeutic interventions against several infectious diseases, as some HIF agonists have helped prevent immune‐related diseases. Hypoxia and inflammation are common features of infectious diseases. Here, we highlighted the role of this crosstalk in the light of functional immunity against infection and inflammation, with special focus on various innate and adaptive immune cells. Particularly, we discussed the bidirectional effects of this crosstalk in the regulation of immune responses by monocytes/macrophages, dendritic cells, neutrophils, B cells, and T cells. We believe an advanced understanding of the interplay between HIFs and NF-kB could reveal novel therapeutic targets for various infectious diseases with limited treatment options.