Global changes are leading to widespread species redistribution. Comprehensive assessments of range shift dynamics and their drivers are difficult, partly due to the variation in range shift detection over space and taxa. Here we compile documented range shift records for 1,758 butterfly species from 105 countries and territories, representing ~10% of the known diversity of these insects. Most species (80%) experienced range expansions, and most range shifts (79%) were associated with climate change and extreme weather events. A substantial proportion of species in our dataset contracted their ranges (27%) or shifted along elevational gradients (22%). We report widespread horizontal range expansions and contractions across tropical countries, with less evidence for elevational range shifts. We show that a clearer picture of range shift dynamics emerged only through the combination of different types of data, with expert assessments and non-English studies alleviating potential biases. Our findings of climate-driven range shifts call for concerted efforts to improve inclusive data monitoring and conservation efforts, especially for tropical countries, where human-induced land-use changes exert additional critical pressure.

Reconciling biodiversity conservation with agroecosystems is a challenge for sustainable food systems. Organic rice production is increasing in Italy, promoting natural and agro-biodiversity. Rice fields can be considered wetland surrogates, crucial as biodiversity hotspots, and thus represent natural or semi-natural habitats within intensively farmed districts. The ecological role and value of rice fields increase when combined with agroecological farming practices. The aim of the current research was to assess the role of paddy fields in biodiversity promotion at different spatial scales in organic and conventional farming conditions, from surrounding environmental matrices to the sustainability of single farming practices. We developed a pool of scalable ecological indicators to assess wetlands-associated biodiversity according to the reference agro-system. Butterflies and dragonfly taxa were used as the main biodiversity and ecosystem services proxy. All low-impact rice farming practices on field banks such as improved soil cover and water level, reduced grass cutting and weeding, and increased botanical diversity prove to be effective for promoting biodiversity. We argue that insect monitoring can be integrated into rice farm appraisal to quantify crop and natural diversification levels. These data, correlated with biodiversity-friendly practices on a scalable field, farm, or district/landscape level, could become a useful tool to weigh the measured benefits of biodiversity-friendly rice management practices and related ecosystem services. Agro-ecological low-input rice farming practices can improve food system resilience against abiotic and biotic stresses caused by climate change, and enhance biodiversity and resilience at both farm and landscape scales.

Abstract An alarming loss of insect diversity is occurring globally, with a substantial portion of European endemic butterflies currently threatened with extinction. Species with narrow distributions are in urgent need of conservation actions. This study focuses on Polyommatus humedasae, a monophagous butterfly endemic to a restricted area in northwestern Italy, where its primary threat is woody encroachment. We developed a replicable and data‐driven workflow to assist in selecting areas for habitat restoration, based on high‐resolution species distribution modeling. Presence data derived from a recent mark‐release‐recapture study were combined with topographic variables and vegetation indices from remote sensing to generate a fine‐scale habitat suitability model. Based on the habitat suitability map, we assessed connectivity to identify critical areas for species movement. We modeled the probability of presence as a function of vegetation cover, identifying the optimal tree cover for the species. Restoration areas were prioritized where patches were unsuitable due to excessively high tree cover and where intervention could enhance connectivity. An area of 0.6 hectares was selected for restoration, considering additional criteria such as impacts on other conservation elements, accessibility to the area, availability of financial resources, and stakeholder involvement. This approach demonstrates the practical applicability of species distribution models in guiding ecological restoration and enabled the development of a management plan aimed at maintaining landscape heterogeneity through a dynamic, small‐scale strategy focused on key areas for species movement.

Wet meadows are semi-natural habitats that represent hotspots of biodiversity across Europe. Historically, they were maintained by humans via mowing and grazing, but in modern times many meadows have been abandoned and become overgrown. A contributing factor is the rapid expansion of reeds (Phragmites spp.), and invasive plants such as goldenrods (Solidago spp.) and milkweeds (Asclepias spp.). Another recent threat to these habitats is climate change. Rising global temperatures lead to warmer microclimatic conditions, which could push them outside the optimal temperature range for meadow organisms. To design meadow management plans to mitigate these threats, we investigated the effect of meadow turf height on topsoil temperature, and the impacts of mowing frequency on turf height as well as on the presence of reeds, goldenrods, and milkweeds across a pan-European climatic gradient. Mowing at least once every two years reduced turf height and limited the presence of goldenrods, milkweeds, and reeds. Greater turf height led to lower topsoil temperature across all regions. Considering these results and previous research, regular mowing, with the frequency of about every second year, of small meadow fragments to create a mosaic of different turf heights appears the optimal solution for controlling habitat succession and invasive plant species. Preventing the negative effects of climate change in the future may require adopting less intensive management so that meadow microclimate remains within a favorable temperature range. Our results prove that topsoil temperature, turf height, and the presence of invasive species can all be controlled with proper meadow management.

Agricultural intensification caused widespread biodiversity loss. However, agroecosystems occupy much of the European territory and may act as surrogate habitats for wildlife. Using butterflies as indicator species, we investigated whether agroecosystems can support both a quantitatively and qualitatively significant share of biodiversity, thereby contributing to conservation. From 2010–2019, we surveyed butterfly communities in four agroecosystems in Northern Italy: pastures, orchards, rice fields, and vineyards. To assess the “quantity” of biodiversity, we calculated diversity indexes and compared estimated species richness with the regional pool. To evaluate “quality,” we analysed community composition through distance-based redundancy analysis (db-RDA) and applied Indicator Species Analysis and functional traits to explore community specialization and functional diversity. More than 60% of the regional species pool was found in agroecosystems, with the highest richness in pastures and vineyards, followed by rice fields and orchards. The agroecosystems hosted distinct and specialized communities. Indicator species analysis revealed marked agroecosystem-specific butterfly assemblages, with pastures harboring the greatest number and functional diversity of indicator species, vineyards supporting a smaller assemblage dominated by xerophilous and ecotonal species, rice fields characterized by few low-altitude and hygrophilous species, and orchards lacking indicator species altogether. In the context of climate change and land-use transformation, these findings highlight the potential of agroecosystems for butterfly conservation in human-dominated landscapes, as they can function as surrogate habitats for semi-open and open natural systems.

Citizen science is increasingly used to document biodiversity in urban ecosystems while simultaneously promoting public engagement with nature. However, how institutional coordination relates to participation levels and the resulting representation of urban biodiversity remains poorly understood, particularly in European cities. The City Nature Challenge is a global annual bioblitz that engages citizens in recording urban biodiversity through the iNaturalist platform. Using the first City Nature Challenge edition in Turin (north-western Italy) as a case study, we examined how coordination by a natural history museum influenced participation and biodiversity data collection within an urban context, and compared participation patterns across eight City Nature Challenge editions in Italy. During the 2025 event in Turin, 123 observers collected 4,085 observations representing 1,086 taxa (940 identified at species level), including 377 species newly recorded for the area, corresponding to a 20.8

Among European wild pollinators, bumblebees (Bombus Latreille, 1802) are of particular interest, and many species have shown documented declines in abundance and distribution. Studies have employed both lethal and non-lethal sampling methods, but for species of conservation concern, it is especially important to use approaches that allow research without compromising populations. Developing reliable, non-lethal methods for accurate identification is thus essential. Our first aim was to analyse the status of bumblebee monitoring across Europe through a systematic review. We assessed the spatial and temporal distribution of studies, the methodologies used and the prevalence of lethal versus non-lethal approaches. Our analysis showed that scientific interest in bumblebees increased over time but declined after a peak in 2021, and that research effort is unevenly distributed across European countries, regardless of European Union (EU) membership. Our second aim was to evaluate the feasibility of taxonomically precise, low-impact bumblebee monitoring in species-rich areas to obtain long-term trend data. Therefore, we conducted a field–laboratory identification test in which bumblebees were monitored through standardized transect walks and double-identified in the field and laboratory over 3 years. This allowed us to develop a method for training and assessing operator identification skills, enabling rapid, non-lethal identification. With the implementation of the EU-PoMS mandated under Article 10 of the Nature Restoration Regulation, demand for efficient non-lethal identification will increase. Our method provides a framework for improving operator skills and demonstrates that non-lethal transect sampling is feasible and necessary given declining pollinator populations and the limited uptake of non-lethal approaches in recent research.

Aim To examine how butterfly population trends respond to climate change and urbanisation at a continental scale, and whether responses differ between urban and rural environments. Location 869 sites across 12 European countries, spanning six bioclimatic zones. Time Period 1976-2021. Major Taxa Studied Butterflies (Lepidoptera). Methods We analysed long-term monitoring data from > 8400 populations of 145 species representing a wide range of ecological and life-history traits. Population trends were modelled in relation to climate variables (temperature, precipitation and aridity), urbanisation (built-up surface), and their interactions with urban context (urban vs. rural) and species traits (trophic specialisation, body size, reproductive rate and thermal adaptation). Results Climate warming and aridification were consistently linked to population declines in both rural and urban contexts, while precipitation effects varied by location and species. Urbanisation alone did not predict trends, but the urban-rural context strongly modulated species' responses to warming, indicating potential synergies between climate change and urbanisation. The stronger impact of warming in urban populations likely reflects elevated baseline temperatures and reduced habitat suitability and connectivity in urban landscapes, limiting thermal buffering. Species with colder thermal niches and lower reproductive rates were most vulnerable to warming, as warming exceeds the thermal optima of cold-adapted species and lower reproductive rates limit their capacity to buffer climate-driven population declines. Under aridification, which can reduce host-plant availability, trophic specialists declined more in urban areas, whereas generalists unexpectedly declined more in rural sites, suggesting context-dependent constraints under increasing water limitation. Main Conclusions Our findings highlight the complex interplay between climate change, urban context, and species traits in driving population dynamics. Importantly, our results suggest that urbanisation generally amplifies the negative impact of climate change on insect population trends.

Urbanization is transforming environments globally. The altered abiotic conditions and biotic interactions in urban habitats impose divergent selection pressures on urban versus rural populations, while genetic drift may also be significant in typically small urban populations. A key question in urban evolution concerns the origin and spread of urban genotypes. Examples exist of both single and multiple origins of urban genotypes, but these have proven difficult to generalize. Here, we address genetic differentiation among urban populations, among rural populations, and between urban and rural populations. We conducted an extensive population genomic double digest restriction-site associated DNA sequencing analysis of two non-model grassland lepidopterans, Coenonympha pamphilus and Chiasmia clathrata, across Europe. The genetic population structures of the study species were strikingly different: Co. pamphilus showed strong population differentiation, while this was almost absent in Ch. clathrata, which instead showed signs of high current and past gene flow among populations. The results of Co. pamphilus are consistent with multiple origins of urban populations, and multiple origins also seem plausible in Ch. clathrata. These results suggest that past and large-scale population dynamics need to be integrated into urban evolution research, because population history affects urban evolutionary dynamics.

Wet meadows are semi-natural habitats that represent hotspots of biodiversity across Europe. Historically, they were maintained by humans via mowing and grazing, but in modern times many meadows have been abandoned and become overgrown. A contributing factor is the rapid expansion of reeds (Phragmites spp.), and invasive plants such as goldenrods (Solidago spp.) and milkweeds (Asclepias spp.). Another recent threat to these habitats is climate change. Rising global temperatures lead to warmer microclimatic conditions, which could push them outside the optimal temperature range for meadow organisms. To design meadow management plans to mitigate these threats, we investigated the effect of meadow turf height on topsoil temperature, and the impacts of mowing frequency on turf height as well as on the presence of reeds, goldenrods, and milkweeds across six European regions. Mowing at least once every two years reduced turf height and limited the presence of goldenrods, milkweeds, and reeds. Greater turf height led to lower topsoil temperature across all regions. Considering these results and previous research, regular mowing, with the frequency of about every second year, of small meadow fragments to create a mosaic of different turf heights is a workable compromise for controlling habitat succession and invasive plant species. Preventing the negative effects of climate change in the future may require adopting less intensive management so that meadow microclimate remains within a favorable temperature range. Our results demonstrate that proper meadow management can strongly influence topsoil temperature, turf height, and the presence of invasive plants.

Abstract Artificial Light At Night (ALAN) is an emerging environmental issue with significant impacts on nocturnal Lepidoptera. To identify key knowledge gaps, we conducted a systematic review of 77 studies addressing the effects of ALAN on moths. Papers were categorized by research type, target taxa, life stage investigated, effect type, publication year, and geographical origin. Our results reveal a marked increase in publications since 2010, predominantly from North America, Europe, and Asia. The adult moth stage received the greatest attention, especially in field studies (48%). Overall, ALAN was found to exert mainly negative effects on moth behavior, reproduction, mobility, and community structure. Despite growing research, substantial gaps remain regarding ALAN's effects on larval and pupal stages. This review underscores the need for further studies to enhance conservation efforts and develop targeted management strategies for nocturnal Lepidoptera.

Conservation biases have been documented since the first emergence of the concept of biodiversity in the 1980s,1,2,3 showing a systematic disproportion in the allocation of research and conservation efforts among taxa.4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11 One factor underlying this disproportion, gaining prominence in recent literature, is species' perceived beauty, shaped by human visual preferences.12,13,14,15,16,17 Here, we integrate a large-scale survey of the perceived beauty of European butterflies yielding >21,000 survey completions from >100 countries into a time-explicit network linking species' beauty, public attention, research and conservation efforts, and the EU regulatory framework. We found that species beauty is consistently associated with public attention, research, and conservation efforts in a temporally structured pattern compatible with a cumulative beauty bias. Research effort and public attention concentrate on widespread and visually attractive species, whereas species included in the legal conservation framework, particularly the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (hereafter, Bern Convention, BC, 1979)18 and the EU Habitats Directive (hereafter, HD, 1992)19 are disproportionately represented by visually appealing and historically protected taxa. Because these frameworks guide funding and management actions, early associations between species beauty and BC/HD inclusion have contributed to long-lasting institutional patterns in butterfly research and conservation. By contrast, European IUCN Red Lists20,21 do not overrepresent beautiful species and identify more inconspicuous taxa as threatened. This mismatch reveals a tension between scientific assessments of extinction risk and historically embedded conservation priorities. Our findings suggest that recognizing beauty bias is vital for aligning conservation with actual ecological urgency. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

Ongoing global change is leading to the widespread redistribution of species1,2. Assessments of shifts in species geographic ranges, however, remain taxonomically biased and geographically limited2, especially for insects. We conducted a global synthesis on butterfly range shifts using a combination of multi-lingual review in 15 languages and expert assessments, compiling data on range shifts for 1758 species (10% of described butterfly species) from 109 countries over the last three decades. In 5 of these countries, over 50% of butterfly species shifted their ranges. Overall, most species showed horizontal range expansion (81%), while 27% contracted their range and 22% shifted in elevation. Expansions were primarily reported in tropical species-rich regions, while 19% of species displayed multiple, concurrent range shifts in different countries, highlighting the complexity of these responses. In addition, there was also variation across families - while one-third of the documented species are nymphalids, pierids and papilionids had the highest proportion of species, experiencing range shift. We pinpoint nine drivers of species redistribution, with climate change and severe weather as most prominent. We suggest a future-focused conservation strategy that emphasises monitoring expansion in underrepresented regions and megadiverse countries, leveraging citizen science, and integrating range shifts into conservation planning.

The ongoing decline of insects is reported in many regions around the world. Loss and degradation of habitats, pollution, and climate change are among the main threats to butterflies. In Europe, many butterfly species are responding to climate change with range shifts. Identifying potential climate refugia is considered a key strategy to counteract the negative effects of climate change. However, several factors influence the potential colonization of future suitable areas. In this study, we investigated the potential effects of climate change on Papilio alexanor in Southern Europe, focusing on two Conservation Units each referring to one of its two host plants. We assessed the habitat requirements and predicted range changes through species distribution modelling, using high resolution predictors and pre-imaginal stages as presence data. Future predictions were made under different climatic scenarios, explicitly accounting for landscape connectivity and colonization limitations due to the moderate dispersal ability of the species. This approach allowed us to restrict predictions to areas with the highest likelihood of successful colonization. Additionally, we aimed to identify potential range shift pathways, which are important corridors for ensuring a successful response to climate change. Results showed a substantial difference in range shifts and predicted area losses between the two different Conservation Units. Key conservation areas were largely covered by existing Protected Areas, both in the present and across different future scenarios. We were able to identify the most relevant areas for the conservation of this species and provide recommendations for implementing habitat conservation measures.

The present study confirms the presence of Acronicta strigosa ([Denis & Schifferm & uuml;ller], 1775) in Italy a century after the last record.

Species populations naturally fluctuate, yet long-term trend analysis can reveal patterns of success, decline, or stability under global change pressures. While responses to climate change are well-documented, its synergy with another major global driver, urbanization, remains understudied. Here, we analyzed long-term monitoring data from over 8,400 populations of 145 butterfly species across Europe, representing a high diversity of species traits, to assess population trends in response to climate change and urbanization. We examined how population responses vary between urban and rural contexts, providing insights into the influence of site-specific conditions. Climate warming was associated with population declines, which were more pronounced in urban areas. The effect of precipitation varied between environments: increases in precipitation generally benefited populations in rural areas but had detrimental effects in urban ones. Aridity consistently drove population declines across environments, with slightly stronger effects in urban areas. Species with colder climatic niches declined the most in response to warming, increased aridity, and reduced precipitation, while trophic specialists were particularly vulnerable to aridity and precipitation changes in urban environments. Although increasing urbanization did not explain overall population trends, its effects became evident when considering species traits, with certain traits being more vulnerable to urbanization. Specifically, species with narrow climatic niches declined the most in response to urbanization in rural areas, while those and larger body sizes decline the most in urban environments. Our findings highlight the complex interplay between environmental change, landscape context, and species traits in shaping biodiversity outcomes. Importantly, our results suggest that urbanization generally amplifies the impact of climate change on insect population trends. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.

Urbanisation is transforming environments globally. The altered abiotic conditions and biotic interactions in urban habitats inflict divergent selection pressures on urban versus rural populations. Genetic drift may simultaneously be significant in typically small urban populations. A key question in urban evolution is whether urban genotypes have a single or multiple origins, but such assessments remain rare, precluding generalizations. We expect similar patterns in species that share ecological traits, but such replicates are missing. To address whether urban and rural populations are genetically differentiated and what is the origin of urban genotypes, we conducted an extensive population genomic ddRADseq analysis of two non-model grassland lepidopterans, Coenonympha pamphilus and Chiasmia clathrata, across Europe. Although the species share ecological traits, their genetic population structures were strikingly different: C. pamphilus had strong population differentiation, while this was almost absent in C. clathrata, which instead showed signs of recent strong population expansion. Although this signature of population expansion complicates inferences, it is nonetheless plausible that the urban populations of both species have multiple origins. This study highlights that urban evolution research needs to integrate phylogeography, because population history affects urban evolutionary dynamics. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.

ABSTRACT Estimating species extinction risk is crucial to reverse biodiversity loss and to adopt proper conservation measures. Different sources may play a pivotal role in prioritising species conservation. Recently, citizen science demonstrated a substantial role, especially when it comes to butterflies. This study examines species records and richness in Aosta Valley, which represents one of the highest mountain areas in Europe. Through 30,351 data points from 1825 to 2022, the impact and efficiency of three groups of data sources were investigated: literature (i.e., publications and collections), sampling (butterfly experts' recording), and citizen science (open‐source databases). The study also aims to assess the extinction potential of the butterflies in relation to functional traits. The results showed that even if there were significant differences in the number of records between the three sources, there were no significant differences for species recorded. Moreover, 2.9% of the butterfly community risks extinction, and it is related to some response traits. Indeed, extinction risks increase when the altitudinal range decreases and for multivoltines. In conclusion, citizen science has a strong impact on the amount of data and could be exploited to fill data gaps at low/medium altitudes. However, professional sampling is needed to focus on species no longer reported, and in particular on species that are difficult to identify, have specific distributions or particular traits (e.g., limited altitudinal range). Using different data sources, extinction risk estimation, and trait analysis, it is possible to prioritise studies on some species using different efforts (sampling and/or citizen sciences).