The Eyasi Plateau, located to the southwest of the Crater Highlands in northern Tanzania, is a paleo-anthropological locality, which is well-known for its fossilized remains of animals and human ancestor species (including Australopithecus afarensis). These fossils occur in tuffaceous sediments (~150 m thick, ca. 4.4 to 0.2 Ma), with aeolian tuffs as a dominant rock type. The sediments overlie a Precambrian basement complex consisting of granite, gneiss, amphibolite, garnet amphibolite, and greenschist. At least 24 minerals (with quartz, plagioclase, microcline, amphibole, biotite and epidote being major constituents) are present in the basement rock. The Lower Laetolil Beds are the oldest section of the tuffaceous sediment package and directly overlie the basement. The beds are composed predominantly of authigenic minerals (~60-90 wt% montmorillonite, kaolinite, phillipsite, chabazite, analcime, calcite, and dolomite). Non-authigenic minerals (38 in total) are less abundant and represented by diverse silicate and oxide phases. Chromium-poor Ca-Na clinopyroxenes (diopside to aegirine), calcic garnets (Ti-bearing andradite to schorlomite), titanite and feldspars (labradorite to albite, microcline and sanidine-anorthoclase) are the most common primary silicate phases; Cr-bearing diopside is much less common. Major oxide constituents are magnetite of highly variable composition (including Mg-Al-rich and Cr-bearing varieties), perovskite and quartz. Exceptionally rare oxide phases are magnesiochromite, pyrochlore and zirconolite. The observed minerals association in the Lower Laetolil Beds suggests that non-authigenic minerals derive from several distinct, and not necessarily cogenetic, rock types. The Precambrian basement rocks and phonolite-nephelinite Sadiman volcano appear to represent the principal sources (“basement” and “nephelinitic”, respectively) for primary detritus in the Lower Laetoli Beds. The occurrence of magnesiochromite and Cr-bearing diopside in these sediments implies also the existence of a “basaltic” source, possibly near Lake Manyara, whereas the pyrochlore + zirconolite assemblage is an indication of a “carbonatitic” source (e.g., Oldoinyo Dili carbonatites). For the latter sources to have contributed to the mineralogy of the Lower Laetolil Beds, non-authigenic detritus would have had to endure surface transportation by wind over a distance of at least 70 km.

Physicochemical properties and vertical distribution patterns of clay minerals were studied in the permafrost-affected soils from the tundra and sub-tundra larch open woodland of Tit-Ary Island. This unique complex is located in the Lena River Delta, Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). Despite the small size of the island and the fact that permafrost is close to the surface, several variants of pedogenesis determine the soil diversity in this area. The soils are characterized by various degrees of gleyic and stagnic properties due to sandy or loamy texture and location in the landscapes (top of the hills and steep or gentle slope). Mineral associations in the studied profiles are similar and are characterized by the predominance of two components: chlorite and illite. Iron hydroxide—lepidocrocite—occurs at the boundary of permanently frozen ground in the profile with pronounced spodic features. Smectitic clay identified in both horizons of this permafrost affected soil, as well as lepidocrocite, can be attributed to the result of modern pedogenesis.

Soils on red-colored calcareous substrates occupy vast areas in Eastern Siberia. The objects of this study are located in the southern part of the Lena–Angara Plateau and are represented by loamy-clayey soils with a high content of total and dithionite-soluble iron. The mineralogical composition of the clay fraction reflects the spatial heterogeneity of red-colored substrates characterized by the illite–chlorite association of clay minerals with a predominance of dioctahedral minerals (micas and, in some cases, dioctahedral chlorites). Red-colored residual-calcareous soils reflect the development of structural metamorphism and textural differentiation of the soil mass. The intensity of these processes at the macro- and microlevels depends on the absolute altitude of the area, which determines the degree of climate humidity. Texturally differentiated soils (raw-humus podzolic soils, or Calcaric Albic Rhodic Luvisols) are formed in the most humid conditions at altitudes above 1000 m a.s.l. They are characterized by the vertical homogeneity of the parent material, weak color differentiation with preservation of the reddish tint in the upper horizons, and distinct differentiation of the clay fraction with a reduced thickness of the illuvial horizon due to the close occurrence of the hard carbonate substrate. At lower altitudes, the signs of clay illuviation are less pronounced, though they can be traced in the profiles of raw-humus podzolized or clay-illuvial brown soils (burozems) (Calcaric Chromic or Calcaric Rhodic Luvisols).

The Laetoli hominid footprints dating back some 3.6 million years discovered by Leakey in 1978 is an archaeological site of great importance in understanding the humanHuman evolutionEvolution. The footprints of hominids, animals, and birds cast in the volcanic ash consolidated into tuff deposits are also an insight into the evolutionEvolution of the whole biogeosystem of this area dominated by volcanic activity. The volcanic ash deposits consolidated into tuffs are a marker which sets the base line for tracking the further sediment transport in the catchmentCatchment of this historic site. The surface of the tuff exposure along the Garusi river carrying the footprints shows no signs of weatheringWeathering and the soils of the area form in subsequent sediments that filled the valley after the deposition of the tuff material. Following the deposition and consolidation of the airfall tuffs, the biogeosystem of the Laetoli gorge and its surroundings experienced a complex evolutionEvolution which led to formation of the present-day soil cover. The study of clay mineralogyMineralogy of these soils has provided interesting insights into the evolutionEvolution of this system.

Physicochemical properties and vertical distribution patterns of clay minerals in the weakly differentiated permafrost-affected soils of the Kolyma Lowland have been studied. These soils are developed under conditions of cold ultracontinental climate within a broad range of landscapes: coastal marsh, alas meadows on the plain composed of the ice complex deposits, and typical northern taiga. Despite the fact that weathering processes are weakly developed at high latitudes, certain features of pedogenic transformation of the initial chlorite–illite association have been identified. These are the presence of (i) vermiculite in the acidic soil horizons of the alas meadow and zonal northern taiga landscapes and (ii) iron hydroxide (lepidocrocite) in the profile of the marsh meadow soil. The soils of zonal taiga woodland are classified as cryozems according to the new Russian profile-genetic soil classification system; their classification position does not cause doubt. Oppositely, the classification of weakly differentiated and differently gleyed soils of intrazonal landscapes (alases and marsh meadows) is open to argument and should be further clarified.

The ecological stability and environmental security are becoming relevant issues being the elements of the national security. The development and the improvement of the financial (including tax), legal, educational, social and cultural components of the environmental regulation system is now a worldwide trend. The publication aims to analyze the financial and fiscal aspects of sustainable use of natural resources. Based on the consideration of advantages and disadvantages of the current system of ecological taxation in Russia, the critical analyses of implementing the “polluters pay” principle was provided and the key disadvantages of the energy and transport tax system were disclosed. The main challenges that arise from the implementation of the traditional objectives of ecological taxes and charges were examined in the paper. As a result of the summarized data the recommendations are suggested to improve the ecological taxation system. The alternative to the fiscal regulation, which aims to develop the mechanisms to solve the problem of sustainable natural resources use was justified in the paper. One of such mechanisms is creation of joint infrastructure that involves both state and business institutions, and enables companies to pursue environmental protection activities.

Retisols are the most spread soil in the boreal forests of the Russian Plain. Their features are usually linked to the Holocene pedogenesis. However, Retisols formed in the bipartite sediments of Moscow age (sandy cover layer on top of the glacial till) could have experienced pedogenic and cryogenic impact much earlier, starting from the last Interglacial. The subdivision of relic and modern features is still incomplete. In our work, OSL datings together with micromorphological studies indicate that the cover layer was formed by local rewashing of the glacial till during the deglaciation of the Moscow glacier. GPR investigation shows the mantle bedding of the cover layer and proves the stability of uplands and slopes since deposition, which confirms their exposure to long time pedogenesis. Detailed morphology, micromorphology, microtomography, clay mineralogy and AMS dating confirm the presence of polygenetic modern and relic features in the profile of Retisols. Within the cover layer, pedogenesis resulted in a set of embedded soil profiles that have been formed in balance with the modern environment. In the glacial till pedogenesis is mostly exhibited on the ped faces as a set of multi-layered clay and clay-humus coatings. Based on AMS dating of the inner layer of the clay infilling, it was argued that clay illuviation had started during the last interglacial (MIS5e) and continued through the Holocene. The studied soils should be considered as surface paleosols (polygenetic soils) with the palimpsest type of soil memory, reflecting environmental evolution during the last interglacial-glacial cycle and the Holocene.

The combination of steppe and tundra locations at Altai highland depressions—Bertek and Khindiktig-Khol’—is considered with regard to verifying the hypothesis of the existence of a tundra steppe in northern Eurasia during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and its contemporary landscape analogues. Data on soil–vegetation cover diversity at the Altai highland depressions are represented. Cause-and-effect relations explaining the spatial differentiation of nature complexes are identified. The thermal regime of locations with the predominance of steppe and dwarf-birch vegetation is investigated. The interrelation between soil–vegetation cover differentiation and distinction in the microclimate and the permafrost boundary are proved.

Geophagia, which is a phenomenon of earth-eating, was defined as the deliberate ingestion of soil or clay, and related materials by man and animals. Corresponding to recent findings in medicine it can target the neutralization of aflatoxins in food. Geophagia was considered as a very common feature of everyday life in Asian and African countries with deep ethnical and traditional roots. The aim of this research is to investigate the legal basis and to assess the socio – cultural basement and economical potential of the phenomenon of geophagia. As the result of the research some approaches to the adjustment of such phenomenon to the challenges of the current situation including industrial and anthropogenic influences were proposed. Consideration of the phenomenon of geophagia as a part of ethnomedicine with the necessity of governmental support of follow- up research and educational programs for people in communities, in which geophagia is widespread was proved.

For the Altai Mountains’ region, especially the arid southeastern part of the Russian Altai, the data on glacier fluctuations in the Pleistocene and Holocene are still inconsistent. The study area was the Kargy River’s valley (2288–2387 m a.s.l.), a location that is not currently affected by glaciation and the glacial history of which is poorly studied. Field observations and geomorphological mapping were used to reveal the configuration of Pleistocene moraines. The relative dating method was applied to define the degree of weathering as an indicator of age. Three moraine groups of different ages (presumably MIS 6, MIS 4, and MIS 2) were identified based on a detailed investigation of their morphological features and the use of relative dating approaches. The latter were primarily based on weathering patterns. Data on the rock mineralogy, porosity, and specificity of biological colonization as an agent of weathering were obtained for the moraine debris. The studied moraines were composed of fine-grained schist, in which the specific surface area and fractality (self-similarity) were more developed in the older moraine. The growth of biota (crustose lichen and micromycetes) colonizing the rock surface led to rock disintegration and the accumulation of autochthonous fragments on the rock surface. Despite the fact that the initial stage(s) of moraine weathering affected by biota was fixed, the correlation trends of biota activity and moraine ages were not determined.

The clay mineralogy of Cryosols formed in several regions (the Anabar and the Alazei plateaus and the Central Yakutia plain) of the north-eastern part of Siberia (Yakutia) was studied to assess weathering activity of minerals in soil environment. The studied soils are represented by shallow profiles located in the hard to reach areas that are not well known from previous soil survey and proper "Palevaya (Pale) soil" from the international forest ecological monitoring network. Based on XRD data of the < 1µm fractions, the minor mineralogical change was observed in the shallow soils. The decrease in proportion of the most sensitive to weathering smectitic structures (mixed-layer illite-smectite) was revealed in the profile from the Anabar plateau. Despite the strong difference in pH values, the horizons ranging in depth are rather similar in the deeper and proper Cryosol ("Palevaya (Pale) soil") from the Central Yakutia plain. The minor difference is related to partial reduction in chlorite proportion occurring in A and B horizons. The present findings revealed that vertical pattern of clay mineral distribution can be affected by the modern stages of weathering activity in Cryosols formed in cold environment of ultra-continental climate.

Data on major properties and clay mineralogy in the profiles of slightly differentiated Cryosols forming in cold ultracontinental climate of Yakutia are discussed. The particular objects are represented by the cryozems of tundra, forest-tundra, and northern taiga of the Anabar and Alazeya plateaus and by the palevaya (pale) soil of middle taiga in Central Yakutia. The differentiation of clay minerals in the vertical soil profiles is poorly pronounced because of the strong homogenizing impact of cryoturbation processes. The profile of pale soil displays minor differences in clay mineralogy despite the strong difference in acid–base conditions of the upper and lower horizons. However, the obtained data suggest that mineral weathering in pale soils of Central Yakutia is more advanced than it was concluded in the 1970s on the basis of data on the absence of pronounced trends in the vertical distribution of clay minerals in their profiles. This is in good agreement with the presence of a sufficiently thick upper humus horizon in these soils, which is typical of the soils of more humid regions. It is suggested that pale soils of Central Yakutia should be classified as soddy pale soils.

This research provided a model of genesis of soils in North-West Siberia connecting the stages of their development to the main environmental changes over the Late Pleistocene and the Holocene. The "soil memory " showed that the studied soils had a complex polygenetic origin. A gleyed paleosol with signs of solifluction found at a depth of 2 m was most probably formed during the Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 3 that is the Karginsky interstadial. The following stage, i.e., MIS2 - the Sartanian cryochron was characterized by the eolian sedimentation of silty material. In the Late Sartanian, new soil formation began in the silty parent material, with a strong platy cryogenic aggregation and grain size sorting. The warmer and more humid climate in the early Holocene induced clay illuviation and allowed for the formation of the argic horizon. Finally, the modern climatic conditions have caused ooidal cryogenic aggregation within upper horizons, however recent frost action has not been as strong as it was during the previous cold stage. Additionally, the modern pedogenesis included spodic and stagnic processes as well as clay mineral transformation. We suppose that such a model of soil evolution could be extrapolated to the northern Cis-Ural region, but not to the west in the Baltic region, where the dynamics of pedogenesis were different.

In the search for biomaterials that exhibit both versatility and compatibility with human-tissues, considerable interest has been shown in collagen-based biomaterial for the repair and replacement of the body tissues such as tendons, skin, vascular grafts, heart valves, dental and bones. Some of the general properties of collagen which makes it an interesting biomaterial are the high mechanical strength of the fibers, low antigenicity, its suitability as a substrate for cell growth, and its tunable stability by chemical or physical cross-linking. Collagen based composites are used in various biomedical applications as collagen shields in ophthalmology, sponges for burns and wounds, mini-pellets and tablets for protein delivery, gel formulation in combination with liposome for sustained drug delivery, as controlling material for transdermal delivery, basic matrices for cell culture systems, coating material of metal implant for bone replacement and 3-D printed matrix for various tissue engineering applications. For an adequate biomedical application of collagen, basic knowledge about collagen structure, hierarchical structural organisation and the processing technology in combination with understanding of the physico-chemical properties is of vital importance.

In the regions of Asia and Africa geophagic clays are traditionally used by population based on historical and traditional motivations including ethno-medical ones. The aim of the present research was to reveal the general common properties of some geophagic clay occurrences based on their mineral composition and landscapes specificity, in which they were sampled. In addition to assess the potential source of the minerals in geoghagic clays, the mineral association of the hard rocks, located in geophagic loose material, was studied too. Mineralogy of the samples was investigated using X-ray diffractometry, FTIR spectroscopy, and optical microscopy. The studied samples were collected in two provinces of South Africa: Free State and Limpopo. It was shown that location of geophagic materials is spread widely in the studied provinces. Using material as geophagic is more historically and traditionally determined than by the type or specificity of a landscape, which cannot be characterized by common features. Whereas it was revealed that despite the differences in location and rock geneses, the most common mineral in the fine size fraction of the studied geophagic samples is smectite—a fine-sized clay mineral with high specific surface area being able to play a role as adsorbent.

Morphologically simple and microbially dominated ecosystems termed “biofilms” have existed on Earth for a long period of biosphere evolution. A model biofilm combining one heterotroph and one phototroph component was used in a laboratory experiment to simulate biogenic weathering with two different specimens of basic rock samples from the soil profiles. The rocks fragments from the regions of cold environments of Eurasia, where abiotic physical processes, including rock disintegration initiated by freezing–thawing cycles, represent the most probable scenario of rock weathering, were subjected to biological colonization. The rock fragments were represented by dolerite and metagabbro amphibolites. Polished sections of the rock samples were inoculated with the model microbiological consortium of the oligotrophic fungus and the phototrophic cyanobacteria (biofilm). After 3 month runtime of the experiment the progress of rock weathering was derived from the growth of the biofilm on the rock surfaces. The model biofilm visualization on the rock surface of polished sections illustrated their stronger development namely on dolerite in comparison with metagabbro amphibolite. The findings confirmed the higher sensitivity of dolerite to biogenic weathering due to (i) mineral association, in which quartz was absent and (ii) porosity providing higher specific surface area for biotic—abiotic interaction influenced by the occurrence of micro-porosity in the rock.

The book represents a collection of papers presented at VI International Symposium Biogenic - abiogenic interactions in natural and anthropogenic systems, covering a wide range of topics connecting with interactions between biogenic and abiogenic components in lithosphere and biosphere

AbstractDespite increase in scales and intensity of involvement of natural resources in the zones of direct and indirect anthropogenic influence, now there is no unified approach to assessment of impact on ecosystems of various levels from local to Biosphere in general. Nowadays it is necessary to stress the existence of the conflict between the ability of ecosystems to develop sustainably and environmental management in connection with the growing needs of the person and society, providing destruction of the ability of environment in future affected by economic and social development. Thus uncontrollable waste emission as well as scantiness of natural resources becomes an essential factor which is slowing down development of not only industry and technology itself but all socio-economic system. Solid waste led to poisoning of fertile lands including soil, water, and biota makes the research in the fiekd of waste management highly essential. To disclose various approached to developing social responsibilities of business in the field of waste management and concentration of financial resources on different level of the budgetary system for economic and ecological sustainable development. Analytical research and critical analysis of the positive international experience of creation of the system of business and government shared responsibilities in the field of waste management. The directions of realization of the principle of expanded social responsibility of business in modern conditions are revealed. Recommendations about providing financial sources of waste management within the system of business and government shared responsibilities and partnership in the field of waste management are developed.

The data on climate and vegetation of the Altai highland depressions are mapped in this paper. The Bertek depression (located 2200 – 2400 m above sea level) and the lake depression of Khindiktig-Khol’ (2300 – 2400 m a.s.l.) are decided to be the study objects. The investigation is based on the information about vegetation and microclimatic differences received during the field research in 2018. Long-term observations of Bertek and Mugur-Aksy meteorological stations are applied to climate characteristics. The steppe vegetation is typical for the depressions. The tundra species also exist alongside the steppe ones within the Khindiktig-Khol’ region, though in some cases the intarsia of tundra and steppe is founded. Tundra communities are insignificant within the Bertek depression. Vegetation cover of the depressions develops under the conditions of short-term vegetation period and undergoes the negative impact of low summer temperatures (mean July temperatures in Bertek – +9,3°С; in Khindiktig-Khol’ – +10,8°С). The data are significantly lower than the mean temperatures of the flat steppe zone. Taking into account the temperature data, the investigated areas are associated with the tundra zone. The climate humidification level is not enough to develop the continuous cover of tundra cenosis (Vysotskii-Ivanov’s precipitation-evaporation ratio of Khindiktig-Khol’ equals 0,74, whereas in Bertek – 0,61). According to the fact above, Khindiktig-Khol’ depression is more humid, and the tundra communities live together with the steppe vegetation. Microclimatic observations of the neighboring areas with the different tundra and steppe cenoses show that the species, which are composing tundra with the dwarf birch (Betula rotundifolia), have unique features, thus creating favorable conditions for the existence of this community. Comparing to the steppe area, the air during the daylight heats better not only above the tundra pattern, but also beneath it. Moreover, the dwarf birch (Betula rotundifolia) keeps the snow cover, which results in a better soil humidification. Consequently, the vegetation cover is more diverse in Khindiktig-Khol’ depression and allows to figure out the appearance of exclusive tundra and steppe mixture.

The complexity of socio-economic issues of mono-cities located in the ecologically unfavorable regions of Eurasia was disclosed. The economically strategic role of city-forming mining enterprises and their impact on ecological situation was revealed. The general conception of settling the socio-economic problems of mono-cities located in ecologically unfavorable regions was worked out. Various approached to the concentration of financial resources for economic and ecological sustainable development of the regions located on the north of Eurasia holding nature protection actions were submitted. Based on performed critical analysis of the positive international experience of ecological taxation some approaches to reforming current Russian system of ecological taxation were suggested. It was revealed that increasing the social responsibilities of business in the field of waste recycling, environmental protection and monitoring of ecological conditions of territories and state and business co-operation are the most efficient opportunities in settling socio-economic issues of ecologically unfavorable regions.