Animal welfare in livestock production is of great interest to consumers. The organic farming approach strives to ensure animal welfare based on preventive measures, but there are very few scientific studies that compare the actual differences in animal welfare between organic and conventional farms. Those studies that have been carried out frequently focus on specific aspects of animal welfare, mostly health issues. The aim of the present study, therefore, was to investigate the effects of the farming system on the welfare of dairy cows in a more holistic way. Although this study was carried out in just two federal states of Germany, the results could serve as a suitable model for the whole country. We used the Welfare Quality assessment protocol to measure welfare for dairy cattle (Welfare Quality®, 2009) and the results showed significant differences (P < 0.05) between organic and conventional farms, but there was also considerable variance between individual farms of the same farming system. Organic farms scored higher in all four Welfare Quality® principles: “Good Feeding”, “Good Housing”, “Good Health” and “Appropriate Behavior” compared to conventional farms. In particular, organic farms obtained higher scores with respect to Welfare Quality® measures of resting comfort, which contributes to a lower percentage of lameness; organic farms also implemented less painful methods for disbudding, or indeed carried out no disbudding, and provided access to pasture and outdoor exercise. However, organic farms still have room for improvement, especially with respect to animal health. Therefore, outcome‐based specifications should be included in the current (purely action-oriented) European regulation of organic production (EC, 2008; EU, 2018) to safeguard the health‐related aspects of animal welfare.

This study aimed to identify organic dairy major farm types (MFTs) in seven European countries, describe these MFTs in an open research database and assess central characteristics of the MFTs. This was conducted in a three-step procedure including (1) Identification of organic MFTs in seven European countries: Austria, Switzerland, Germany, Denmark, Lithuania, Poland and Sweden, based on existing data from dairy databases and consultations with experts within the respective fields of knowledge; (2) Collection of data on farm characteristics, management procedures, production level and herd health from at least 10 farms per MFT and country and (3) Creating an open research database on MFT characteristics, description of essential characteristics of MFTs and assessment of similarities and differences between farms within and across MFTs. The results indicate variations in herd characteristics such as production level, herd size, farm size, housing system, milking system and cow health status between organic dairy farms in these seven European countries. It also indicates variations in management strategies such as feeding, animal health management and recruitment strategies across the organic dairy sector in Europe. These variations seem to be associated with differences between regions and countries in the conditions for organic dairy production, such as topography, land availability and regulations.

Organic milk production varies due to topographical and structural farm conditions, but very little information is available about this variation in Germany. The aim of this study was to identify typical major farm types (MFTs) of German organic dairy farms and to describe their farm, herd, and management characteristics. Based on data from 204 organic dairy farms from previous studies with representative samples, four MFTs were identified by cluster analysis. Cluster-criteria were herd size, milk yield, region, and housing system. Identified MFTs were (A) medium-scale herds with low-to-medium milk yield, (B) small-scale herds with low milk yield, (C) large-scale herds with high milk yield, and (D) medium-scale herds in Southern Germany with medium milk yield. Descriptive measures of herd management obtained from interviews with 10–11 farms per MFT showed that the MFTs typically differ in more variables than the cluster-criteria. For example, small-scale farms with low milk yield provided the highest and large-scale farms with high milk yield the lowest pasture access, while the amount of concentrate fed showed an inverse association. No significant differences were found regarding herd health indicators. The results showed that different management strategies can lead to similar results regarding herd health and longevity. However, achieving high milk yields in organic dairy herds also requires high input, not only in terms of feed with a high-energy density like maize or concentrates but also in terms of preventive health measures. Thus, for research and recommendations variation between different dairy farm types should be taken into account.

In this study, a data set of 2922 lactating dairy cows in a sample of 64 conventional and organic dairy farms with Holstein Friesian cows in Germany and 31 conventional dairy farms with the dual purpose breed Fleckvieh in Austria was used to screen for correlations between the occurrences of different integument alterations. All cows were housed in cubicle systems. Alterations were classified as hairless areas (H), scabs or wounds (W) or swellings (S) and assessed at 15 locations of the cows’ body. Highest median farm prevalences were found at the joints of the legs, which are already commonly included in studies on integumentary alterations: median farm prevalence was 83% for S and 48% for H at the carpal joints, followed by H (38%) and S (20%) at the lateral tarsal joints and H at the lateral calcanei (20%). Additional body parts with notable median prevalences for H were the hip bones (13%), pin bones (12%) and sacrum (11%). Three cluster models, with 2, 5 and 14 clusters, were built by hierarchical clustering of prevalences of the 30 most relevant alteration location combinations. Clustering revealed that location overruled type of lesion in most cases. Occasionally, clusters represented body segments significantly distant from each other, for example the carpal joints and lateral and dorsal calcanei. However, some neighbouring areas such as the medial and lateral hock area should be analysed separately from each other for causal analysis as they formed distinct clusters.

Achieving and maintaining high herd health and welfare status and low veterinary medicine inputs are important aims in organic livestock farming. Therefore, an on-farm intervention study (CORE Organic ANIPLAN) was conducted on 128 organic dairy farms in seven European countries aiming at minimising medicine use through animal health and welfare planning (AHWP). Medicine use (excluding complementary treatments such as homeopathic remedies) was assessed as the total number of treatments and as the number of treatments of various disease categories (udder, fertility, metabolism, locomotion and others) generated from farm records and national databases, respectively. Health and production data were calculated at farm level from milk recording data: Somatic cell score (SCS) was used as an indicator for udder health, incidences of low (<1.1) and high (>1.5) fat–protein ratio as indicators of rumen acidosis and imbalanced energy supply, respectively. Calving interval was used as an indicator for fertility. Milk recording data and treatment data were retrospectively collected for a one year period before and after the first farm visit. Focus areas of animal health and welfare plans were either generated in Stable Schools (adapted Farmer Field Schools) or using face-to-face advice but following similar principles. Most frequently chosen focus areas were metabolic disorders (66% of farms), udder health (58%), lameness (47%), and fertility (39%). General linear models for repeated measures were used to analyse the development at the farm level. The total number of treatments, the number of udder treatments and the number of metabolic treatments were all significantly reduced during the one year study period, whilst the number of treatments of lame cows increased. With the exception of SCS, which improved significantly, the other health indicators remained stable. Milk yield and average lactation number also remained unchanged. Choice of different focus areas had no significant effects on the corresponding treatment and health variables except for indication of rumen acidosis; for the latter situation on farms with an AHWP focus on metabolic issues improved, but this was not the case across all farms. Overall, the implementation of AHWP reduced total treatment incidence and improved the udder health situation across all farms regardless of the focus areas in the AHWP. Hence, AHWP can be regarded as a feasible approach to minimising medicine use without the impairment of production and herd health under several organic dairy farming conditions in Europe.

To improve the sustainability of dairy production it is essential to establish practices that reduce medicine use whilst safeguarding or improving herd health and productivity. Aiming at minimising medicine use through animal health and welfare planning (AHWP), 111 farms in 6 countries were monitored as part of the wider Core Organic ANIPLAN project. For this purpose, the number of udder treatments with antibiotics was recorded. Somatic cell score (SCS) served as an indicator of udder health, and milk yield and average lactation number were calculated at the farm level from milk recording data. Treatment and milk recording data were collected for a one year period before and after a first farm visit. AHWP was carried out either in stable schools or using one-to-one-advice. General linear models for repeated measures revealed a decrease in udder treatments with antibiotics over all farms (P=0.004). SCS improved significantly over all farms (P=0.025), whilst milk yield and average lactation number remained unchanged (P>0.05). Choosing 'udder health' as AHWP focus area (58% of the farmers) did not further improve the parameters investigated. The implementation of an AHWP process can be regarded as a feasible approach to improve udder health and minimise medicine use without impairment of productivity.

Im Mittelpunkt des Projektes stand die Stoffwechsel- und Eutergesundheit von okologisch gehaltenen Milchkuhen im pra- und peripartalen Zeitraum sowie in den ersten 100 Laktationstagen und deren Beeinflussung durch die Futter- und Nahrstoffversorgung und die Haltungsumwelt im umfassenden Sinn. In einer bundesweiten Feldstudie auf 106 okologisch wirtschaftenden Milchviehbetrieben erfolgten Erhebungen mit dem Ziel einer Risikomodellierung zu Stoffwechsel- und Eutererkrankungen. Vor diesem Hintergrund wurden die Produktionssysteme von der Pflanzenzusammensetzung im Grunland und im Ackerfutter uber die Grobfutterproduktion, Futterqualitat und Rationsgestaltung, Haltungsumwelt bis hin zur Tiergesundheit und Milchqualitat analysiert, um hier einzelbetriebliche Risikoeinschatzungen vorzunehmen, Optimierungspotenziale aufzuzeigen und Handlungsempfehlungen abzuleiten, die anschliesend betriebsindividuell implementiert wurden. Die Effektivitat des so geschaffenen praventiv orientierten Tiergesundheitsmanagements wurde anhand der Entwicklung ausgewahlter Kennzahlen der Euter- und Stoffwechselgesundheit gepruft. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass sich mit dieser Vorgehensweise auch unter Praxisbedingungen die Tiergesundheitssituation signifikant verbes-sern lasst. Die Feldstudie wurde mit experimentellen Untersuchungen erganzt, die sich speziellen Fragen der Analyse von nXP in Grasprodukten, des Kraftfuttereinsatzes, der Wahl der geeigneten Rasse, dem Infektionsgeschehen, der Nutzung von Haltungstechniken im Futterungsmanagement und der Verbesserung der Grasnarbe widmeten. Die im Projekt generierten, aufgrund ihrer Ableitung aus der Praxis widerspruchsarmen Erkenntnisse wurden uber vielfaltige Formen des Wissenstransfers an die Akteure in der Okologischen Milchviehhaltung vermittelt. Ein Merkblatt zur Euter- und Stoffwechselgesundheit bei Biomilchkuhen und ein modular aufgebautes Wissenstransferkonzept wurden erarbeitet, um die Projektergebnisse nachhaltig nutzen zu konnen.

The present study aimed at assessing the effects of herd health plans (HHP) on animal health in 27 organic dairy farms over a period of up to three years; 13 other farms served as control farms. Farms were visited between 2006 and 2010 and herd health planning consisted of farm-individual intervention measures which were based on baseline recordings of health indicators and a weak-point analysis of the housing environment and the herd management. Mixed models for repeated measures were used to analyse the effect of the group (intervention vs. control group) and the year, as well as their interaction. Udder health significantly improved on 14 farms which implemented measures from their HHP promptly, compared to control farms (n=26). In intervention farms, the decrease in treatment incidence of clinical mastitis was more pronounced than in the control group (35.2 -> 16.1% vs. 22.8 -> 19.4%; interaction g*y: P=0.01) and also the somatic cell score (SCS) tended to improve (3.71 -> 3.42 vs. 3.25 -> 3.26). The percentage of cows in a herd with an somatic cell count higher than 100,000 cells/ml milk, as indicator for the incidence of subclinical mastitis, significantly improved in the intervention farms (P=0.042). When the difference from the baseline status in 2006 was analysed (with baseline situation as a covariate), there was a significant intervention effect on the change in SCS (Delta-LSMEANS; intervention: -0.200 vs. control: +0.016; P=0.023) and in the incidence of subclinical mastitis (Delta-LSMEANS; intervention: -4.43 vs. control: +0.98, P=0.032). Average herd age and average milk yield remained unchanged during the study. In conclusion, the results demonstrate beneficial effects of farm-individual herd health plans on several indicators of udder health.

A nationwide interdisciplinary intervention study in 106 German organic dairy farms was carried out in order to develop preventive animal health management strategies for mastitis and metabolic disorders and to implement and validate this concept. After an initial farm visit focusing on the health situation and the potential risk factors including housing, herd management, feeding and forage production, individual evidence-based advice was provided by the project team. Intervention measures to improve herd health were implemented and their effectiveness was monitored for two years. Udder health regarding milk somatic cell count and treatment incidence for mastitis improved significantly, whereas the percentage of dry-off-treatments with antibiotics and internal teat-sealers increased significantly. Considering indicators of metabolic health, there was an improvement in treatment incidence of milk fever and ketosis, but the percentage of cows with a fat protein-ratio above 1.5 in the first 100 days in milk -as indication of subclinical ketosis- did not change.

Livestock is important in many organic farming systems, and it is an explicit goal to ensure high levels of animal health and welfare (AHW) through good management. This will lead to reduced medicine use and better quality of animal products. In two EU network projects NAHWOA & SAFO it was concluded that this is not guaranteed merely by following organic standards. Both networks recommended implementation of individual animal health plans to stimulate organic farmers to improve AHW. These plans should include a systematic evaluation of AHW and be implemented through dialogue with each farmer in order to identify goals and plan improvements. 15 research institutions in 8 European countries are involved in the proposed project with the main objective to minimise medicine use in organic dairy herds through active and well planned AHW promotion and disease prevention. The project consists of 5 work packages, 4 of which comprise research activities building on current research projects, new applications across borders, exchange of knowledge, results and conclusions between participating countries, and adopting them to widely different contexts. International and national workshops facilitate this exchange. Focus areas are animal health planning, AHW assessment using animal based parameters and development of advisory systems and farmer groups. Epidemiological analyses of the effect on AHW from reduced medicine use and herd improvements are planned in all participating countries.

Identifying lame cows and quantifying the prevalence of lameness are important elements of cattle welfare assessment that are generally achieved by methods involving observations of each animal walking. There is no published method for assessing lameness in cows confined in tie-stalls. The objective of this study (carried out within the European Commission's Welfare Quality(R) project) was to develop a suitable method and validate it for lameness detection against a published locomotion score. A series of indicators of lameness visible in tied cows was formalized into a stall assessment protocol. This was validated against a traditional locomotion score and tested for repeatability between 2 observers. A total of 98 cows on 4 farms were assessed. Overall interobserver agreement was 91%. Sensitivity compared with locomotion scoring was 0.54 to 0.77, dependent on observer and threshold definition. Assessment in the stall underestimated the herd prevalence of lameness revealed by locomotion scoring by 11 to 37% (mean 27%). The discrepancy between herd lameness prevalence assessed in the stall and by locomotion scoring was not affected significantly by farm or observer. The cases of lameness that were not detected in the stall tended to be the least severe. The proposed method for lameness detection in tie-stalls could be used for herd-level assessment of lameness and detection of individual lame animals by farmers and their advisors, but it is important to remember that it is less sensitive than locomotion scoring.

Lameness poses a considerable problem in modern dairy farming. Several new developments (e.g., herd health plans) strive to help farmers improve the health and welfare of their herd. It was thus our aim to identify lameness risk factors common across regions, breeds, and farming systems for freestall-housed dairy cows. We analyzed data from 103 nonorganic and organic dairy farms in Germany and Austria that kept 24 to 145 Holstein Friesian or Fleckvieh cows in the milking herd (mean = 48). Data on housing, management, behavior, and lameness scores for a total of 3,514 cows were collected through direct observations and an interview. Mean lameness prevalence was 34% (range = 0-81%). Data were analyzed applying logistic regression with generalized estimating equations in a split-sample design. The final model contained 1 animal-based parameter and 3 risk factors related to lying as well as 1 nutritional animal-based parameter, while correcting for the significant confounders parity and data subset. Risk for lameness increased with decreasing lying comfort, that is, more frequent abnormal lying behavior, mats or mattresses used as a stall base compared with deep-bedded stall bases, the presence of head lunge impediments, or neck rail-curb diagonals that were too short. Cows in the lowest body condition quartile (1.25-2.50 for Holstein Friesian and 2.50-3.50 for Fleckvieh) had the highest risk of being lame. In cross-validation the model correctly classified 71 and 70% of observations in the model-building and validation samples, respectively. Only 2 out of 15 significant odds ratios (including contrasts) changed direction. They pertained to the 2 variables with the highest P-values in the model. In conclusion, lying comfort and nutrition are key risk areas for lameness in freestall-housed dairy cows. Abnormal lying behavior in particular proved to be a good predictor of lameness risk and should thus be included in on-farm protocols. The study is part of the European Commission's Welfare Quality project.

Four observers were trained in lameness assessment using a subjective scoring system with five categories, and observer agreement was investigated four times at different stages of training and experience. Inter-observer reliability increased with time and reached acceptable levels in the lost session. Retrospectively simplified versions of the scoring system were satisfactorily reliable already at a fairly low training level. For experienced raters, the original scoring system with five categories is suitable in terms of reliability for on-farm welfare assessment.

In the present study, the effect of training on inter-observer reliability was studied for a 5-category lameness scoring system used for routine on-form surveys of welfare in dairy cattle. The inter-observer agreement between an experienced and an initially inexperienced observer was determined during an initial training phase and at specific time points in the course of data collection in 46 herds. During the training phase on three forms, inter-observer reliability increased to an acceptable level for both the 5-category gait scoring system and the distinction between lame and non-lame cows.The 4th testing after 17 on-form visits revealed a considerable increase in inter-observer reliability which was further improved in the course of the on-form visits.In conclusion, acceptable inter-observer agreement for differentiating between non-lame and lame cows was achieved after only a brief introduction. In order to obtain high inter-observer repeatability with the 5-category gait scoring system used in this study, (more) intensive training procedures are required.

Asymmetric conjugate addition is one of the most powerful methods for C-C bond formation at the β-carbon. The potential exists for further elaboration at the α-carbon by in situ trapping of the metal enolate with electrophiles. The authors describe trapping of poorly reactive zinc enolates with activated electrophiles giving good to high yields and trans/cis products with excellent enantioselectivity.

The electrical characteristics of the ferrite substrate microstrip circulator having wider magnetized region than conventional one have been studied. This work enables us to compose a compact and simplified wideband circulator without the impedance matching networks. The electric field measurement shows that the wideband characteristics are realized by the combination of the conventional n=1 mode and a nonresonant mode different but compatible to the former. A C-band version measuring 15 mm in diameter offers more than 20 dB isolation and an insertion loss less than 0.5 dB over a bandwidth of 50 percent or more with the center frequency of 6.3 GHz.