Planchonella is the largest genus in subfamily Chrysophylloideae (Sapotaceae), believed to circumscribe about 110 species, occurring throughout tropical Asia, Australia, and Oceania, as well as the Seychelles and Hawaii. Previous studies have confirmed the monophyly of Planchonella but also identified problems such as species limits of the name‐bringing taxon P. obovata , paraphyly of the widespread P. chartacea , confusion between the large‐leaved and often cultivated species P. maclayana and P. pomifera , and the variable species P. torricellensis . Species limits of P. chartacea , P. duclitan , P. obovata and P. torricellensis are investigated by sampling multiple accessions. We examine these problems in a Bayesian framework using BEAST by using three nrDNA loci (ETS, ITS, RPB2 ) and indel data of 184 terminals, which represent about 90% of the recognised species. Five morphological characters for the P. chartacea complex were mapped onto the resultant tree. Our analyses agree with previously obtained Planchonella phylogenies with four major clades recovered. Planchonella obovata is found to be a variable taxon, and two species, P. clemensii and P. mindanaensis , are synonymised with P. obovata , opposed to P. merrillii , which is reinstated. Three species are synonymised under P. chartacea , a widespread species that ranges from Singapore in the west to different Pacific islands in the east. Leaf morphology is very similar in P. maclayana , P. macrantha , and P. pomifera , but they can be distinguished on tertiary leaf venation patterns. Our molecular phylogeny demonstrates that P. duclitan as currently circumscribed represents two species: P. duclitan mainly distributed east of Wallace's Line and P. spectabilis west of Wallace's Line. Ninety‐six described species are recognised, for which we provide full nomenclature and typification. Seven undescribed species are identified. Four species require transfer to the related genus Pleioluma , one to Sideroxylon , and two species, P. erringtonii and Chrysophyllum rhodoneurum , are excluded from Planchonella . We designate lectotypes for 71 names, make one new combination, viz. Planchonella bakhuizenii , and designate neotypes for P. duclitan and P. endlicheri .

Pouteria splendens is the only native species of Sapotaceae in Chile, a species once placed in the monotypic genus Gayella and known as G. valparadisaea, but for a long time treated as a Pouteria. In a phylogenetic analysis, this species was placed in an Australasian clade, not with its presumed relatives in South America. We used Bayesian inference under a relaxed molecular clock in BEAST, nuclear ribosomal DNA (ETS, ITS), the nuclear gene RPB2, indel information, and 201 terminals to find the closest relative of P. splendens and to estimate the age of the disjunction between Australasia and South America. The taxon has an isolated phylogenetic position, being part of the clade & apos;s backbone, and is placed with weak support as sister to Van-royena, another monotypic genus, but endemic to Australia. Our results justify reinstatement of Gayella with its single species G. valparadisaea. Gayella has a unique combination of morphological features including alternate, opposite or 3-whorled leaves, often on the same plant, a usually 6-lobed, rotate corolla with revolute corolla lobes giving the flower a star-like appearance, lacerate to dentate staminodes, and yellow-orange-red fruit with plano-convex cotyledons and an exserted radicle below the cotyledon commissure. The split between Gayella and Van-royena is estimated to the late Eocene at about 40.0 Ma (50.5-25.3 Ma). The hypothesis that the presence of Gayella in South America is a result of vicariance is consistent with the timing of the geological splits of southern Gondwana, as well as with evidence from fossil pollen, but long-distance dispersal is an alternative explanation that cannot be excluded. Gayella is restricted to an area with a Mediterranean-type climate in coastal central Chile, where it occurs in rocky places, ravines, and gullies, usually below 100 m altitude within reach of sea mist. Gayella valparadisaea is a rare plant, listed as Endangered (EN) in Chile, but it does not occur in any protected area. Considering the isolated phylogenetic position of this old lineage, we urge the Chilean authorities to increase the efforts towards protection of this species.

Classifications of the pantropical plant family Sapotaceae based solely on morphology have historically recognized between 125 and 53 genera. Phylogenetic analyses using molecular data have repeatedly demonstrated that broad concepts of two large genera belonging to subfamily Chrysophylloideae, Chrysophyllum and Pouteria, are untenable and their narrowed delimitations have restricted them to the Neotropics. A recent phylogenetic study proposed further amendments by resurrecting the genera Achrouteria, Cornuella, Lucuma, Martiusella, Nemaluma, Prieurella and Ragala, and questioned the status of three generally accepted genera, Chromolucuma, Pradosia and Sarcaulus. We test this suggested classification using expanded sampling that comprises 122 terminals, including material of 29 of the 34 name-bringing species for generic names historically regarded as synonyms of Chrysophyllum and Pouteria. We used sequence data from ribosomal nrDNA (ETS, ITS), the nuclear gene RPB2, two cpDNA spacers (petN-psbM, trnH-psbA), and indel information to estimate phylogenetic relationships in a Bayesian framework using BEAST. All sequences were newly realigned to test reproducibility, and 26 morphological characters were mapped on the resulting tree. Our analyses recovered three African genera embedded within a large Neotropical clade of Chrysophylloideae. We found strong support for the reinstatement of the seven genera listed above as well as for four other genera, viz. Chloroluma, Englerella, Labatia, and Peteniodendron. This subsequently leads to further amendments of Chrysophyllum and Pouteria, which are now limited to include 25-30 and 7 species, respectively. However, one clade that includes many name-bringing lineages largely corresponds to Pouteria s.l., a group that needs further phylogenetic research to unravel relationships and generic limits. The hypothesis that Chrysophyllum cuneifolium had an inter-continental hybrid origin involving genomes from Africa and South America is rejected because it is shown to have been based on erroneous results obtained from a contaminated DNA aliquot. A total of 73 genera are currently recognised in Sapotaceae, 21 of which are Neotropical members of Chrysophylloideae. We update the nomenclature and synonymy of 75 species, make 36 new combinations, and designate lectotypes for 31 names.

Abstract— Planchonella (Sapotaceae) in Hawaii has a complicated taxonomic history that has resulted in considerable confusion among botanists and conservation practitioners. Up to seven different species and several varieties have been described in Hawaii, with the most recent taxonomic evaluation recognizing one species, P. sandwicensis. We have conducted a phylogenetic study of Hawaiian Planchonella using molecular (ETS, ITS, and RPB2) and morphological data to infer whether one or several species can be distinguished. In line with earlier research based on molecular data, we find that Planchonella in Hawaii is comprised of two well-supported clades distinguished by fruit color: yellow or purple. The purple-fruited clade contains individuals with flat leaf blades, long pedicels, and greenish corollas, a species corresponding to P. sandwicensis, distributed on all Hawaiian Islands except the island of Hawaii. The yellow-fruited clade possesses leaves that are frequently longitudinally rolled, wavy or distally deflexed, short pedicels, and yellow or cream (rarely greenish) corollas, a species corresponding to P. spathulata that is distributed on all Hawaiian Islands but is believed rare in Kauai. Both species can set fruit with aborted ovules, resulting in small fruits that look dissimilar to well-developed fruit. The species can occur in sympatry, where P. sandwicensis seems to be better adapted to slightly wetter forests and higher altitudes, whereas P. spathulata usually occurs at lower elevations in mesic to dry forests. Both species exhibit large morphological variation and overlap, resulting in many previous collections with inadequate label information, which has impeded correct taxonomic determinations. We refrain from recognizing infraspecific taxa because there is no morphological coherence, no molecular support, and it is unhelpful for species conservation. Five lectotypes are here designated. Both species are assessed for conservation status according to IUCN guidelines and are tentatively proposed as species of Least Concern.

Pycnandra Benth., a member of subfamily Chrysophylloideae (Sapotaceae), is the largest endemic genus in New Caledonia and is subdivided into six subgenera. It circumscribes 59 species, plus an additional three described here, and nine additional species that remain undescribed for various reasons. We here use nrDNA data of ETS, ITS, and RPB2, analyse it within a Bayesian framework using BEAST, and place the new species in their respective subgenera. Pycnandra perplexa Swenson & Gâteblé is placed in subgenus Achradotypus and given a preliminary IUCN Red List assessment of Near Threatened (NT). It is confined to the ultramafic massif of southern Grande Terre and separated from the similar species P. griseosepala Vink, which is confined to non-ultramafic mountains north of the large southern ultramafic plateau. Pycnandra kopetoensis Munzinger & Swenson and P. margueriteae Munzinger & Swenson are two new micro-endemic species known only from their type localities, where habitats have been destroyed by deforestation, deliberate fires and mining activities. Pycnandra kopetoensis is named after Mount Kopéto, placed in subgenus Leptostylis, and given a preliminary assessment as Critically Endangered (CR). Pycnandra margueriteae is from a small remnant forest near Bourail and categorised as Critically Endangered (CR). Revised identification keys for subgenus Achradotypus, Leptostylis and Pycnandra are provided.

Silene (Caryophyllaceae) is distributed predominantly in the northern Hemisphere, where it is most diverse around the Mediterranean Basin. The genus is also well represented in North Africa, extending into tropical, sub-Saharan and southern Africa. Eight native species are recognized in southern Africa, taxonomically placed in two sections: Elisanthe and Silene s.l. Although the taxonomy of the southern African taxa has recently been revised, their phylogenetic relationships and biogeographic history remain unclear. This study aims to infer the phylogenetic position and geographic origins of the southern African taxa. We generated DNA sequences of nuclear and plastid loci from several individuals belonging to all eight species of Silene recognized from southern Africa, and combined our DNA sequences with existing data representing species from major clades (i.e. sections) based on the recently revised Silene infrageneric taxonomy. We used a Bayesian coalescent species tree continuous diffusion approach to co-estimate the species tree and the ancestral areas of representative members of the genus. Our results show that the perennial southern African members of section Elisanthe form a strongly-supported clade with the Eurasian annual S. noctiflora and the Central Asian perennial S. turkestanica. The rest of the perennial species form a strongly-supported clade together with the annual S. aethiopica, which is nested in a larger Mediterranean clade comprising mostly annual species classified in section Silene s.l. Estimates of ancestral areas indicate a late Pleistocene dispersal to southern Africa from central and East Africa for the sub-Saharan members of section Silene s.l. The Elisanthe clade is inferred to have colonized southern Africa through long-distance dispersal from Eurasia during the late Pleistocene. Our findings support the hypothesis of a relatively recent colonization into southern Africa resulting from two independent dispersal events during the Pleistocene.

Abstract. Pycnandra Benth., a member of subfamily Chrysophylloideae (Sapotaceae), is the largest endemic genus in New Caledonia and is subdivided into six subgenera. It circumscribes 59 species, plus an additional three described here, and nine additional species that remain undescribed for various reasons. We here use nrDNA data of ETS, ITS, and RPB2, analyse it within a Bayesian framework using BEAST, and place the new species in their respective subgenera. Pycnandra perplexa Swenson & Gâteblé is placed in subgenus Achradotypus and given a preliminary IUCN Red List assessment of Near Threatened (NT). It is confined to the ultramafic massif of southern Grande Terre and separated from the similar species P. griseosepala Vink, which is confined to non-ultramafic mountains north of the large southern ultramafic plateau. Pycnandra kopetoensis Munzinger & Swenson and P. margueriteae Munzinger & Swenson are two new micro-endemic species known only from their type localities, where habitats have been destroyed by deforestation, deliberate fires and mining activities. Pycnandra kopetoensis is named after Mount Kopéto, placed in subgenus Leptostylis, and given a preliminary assessment as Critically Endangered (CR). Pycnandra margueriteae is from a small remnant forest near Bourail and categorised as Critically Endangered (CR). Revised identification keys for subgenus Achradotypus, Leptostylis and Pycnandra are provided.

AbstractThe pantropical plant family Sapotaceae currently includes 65–70 genera. Two genera, Beauvisagea and Boerlagella, were described in 1890s using incomplete material from West New Guinea (Bird's Head Peninsula) and Sumatra, neither of which has been collected since. Their systematic position has long been regarded doubtful and Boerlagella was once placed in its own family, Boerlagellaceae. We show here how useful and important it can be to obtain small leaf fragments from type specimens that are up to 150 years old for molecular analysis aiming to determine their phylogenetic position and clarify their taxonomic status. We used nuclear ribosomal DNA (ETS, ITS) and the nuclear gene RPB2 from 170 terminals to estimate phylogenetic relationships in a Bayesian framework using BEAST. The old type material yielded full length sequences of ETS and ITS from both genera (less successful with RPB2), revealing that both are firmly placed in Planchonella. Boerlagella is placed in synonymy with Planchonella and its type is accepted as Planchonella spectabilis, a species from Sumatra that possibly has gone extinct due to deforestation. Beauvisagea from the Bird's Head Peninsula of western New Guinea is likewise regarded as a synonym of Planchonella and its type, accepted as P. pomifera, is conspecific with Pouteria doonsaf (currently circumscribed to include material of at least two different species), not Planchonella maclayana as earlier believed. Our study also included Planchonella suboppositifolia, an odd species with a character combination in conflict with the current definition of the genus. Our results show that it is sister to a lineage comprising several genera, including Planchonella, and that it represents a distinct lineage constituting a monotypic genus that will be described in a subsequent paper. The most recent classification of subfamily Chrysophylloideae and the character combinations used to distinguish its constituent genera are supported, and our results confirm that taxa can reliably be assigned to a genus based on morphology alone.

The pantropical plant family Sapotaceae currently includes 65-70 genera. Two genera,BeauvisageaandBoerlagella, were described in 1890s using incomplete material from West New Guinea (Bird's Head Peninsula) and Sumatra, neither of which has been collected since. Their systematic position has long been regarded doubtful andBoerlagellawas once placed in its own family, Boerlagellaceae. We show here how useful and important it can be to obtain small leaf fragments from type specimens that are up to 150 years old for molecular analysis aiming to determine their phylogenetic position and clarify their taxonomic status. We used nuclear ribosomal DNA (ETS, ITS) and the nuclear geneRPB2from 170 terminals to estimate phylogenetic relationships in a Bayesian framework using BEAST. The old type material yielded full length sequences of ETS and ITS from both genera (less successful withRPB2), revealing that both are firmly placed inPlanchonella. Boerlagellais placed in synonymy withPlanchonellaand its type is accepted asPlanchonella spectabilis, a species from Sumatra that possibly has gone extinct due to deforestation.Beauvisageafrom the Bird's Head Peninsula of western New Guinea is likewise regarded as a synonym ofPlanchonellaand its type, accepted asP. pomifera, is conspecific withPouteria doonsaf(currently circumscribed to include material of at least two different species), notPlanchonella maclayanaas earlier believed. Our study also includedPlanchonella suboppositifolia, an odd species with a character combination in conflict with the current definition of the genus. Our results show that it is sister to a lineage comprising several genera, includingPlanchonella, and that it represents a distinct lineage constituting a monotypic genus that will be described in a subsequent paper. The most recent classification of subfamily Chrysophylloideae and the character combinations used to distinguish its constituent genera are supported, and our results confirm that taxa can reliably be assigned to a genus based on morphology alone.

With 149 currently recognized species, Hypostomus is one of the most species-rich catfish genera in the world, widely distributed over most of the Neotropical region. To clarify the evolutionary history of this genus, we reconstructed a comprehensive phylogeny of Hypostomus based on four nuclear and two mitochondrial markers. A total of 206 specimens collected from the main Neotropical rivers were included in the present study. Combining morphology and a Bayesian multispecies coalescent (MSC) approach, we recovered 85 previously recognized species plus 23 putative new species, organized into 118 'clusters'. We presented the Cluster Credibility (CC) index that provides numerical support for every hypothesis of cluster delimitation, facilitating delimitation decisions. We then examined the correspondence between the morphologically identified species and their inter-specific COI barcode pairwise divergence. The mean COI barcode divergence between morphological sisters species was 1.3 ± 1.2%, and only in 11% of the comparisons the divergence was ≥2%. This indicates that the COI barcode threshold of 2% classically used to delimit fish species would seriously underestimate the number of species in Hypostomus, advocating for a taxon-specific COI-based inter-specific divergence threshold to be used only when approximations of species richness are needed. The phylogeny of the 108 Hypostomus species, together with 35 additional outgroup species, confirms the monophyly of the genus. Four well-supported main lineages were retrieved, hereinafter called super-groups: Hypostomus cochliodon, H. hemiurus, H. auroguttatus, and H. plecostomus super-groups. We present a compilation of diagnostic characters for each super-group. Our phylogeny lays the foundation for future studies on biogeography and on macroevolution to better understand the successful radiation of this Neotropical fish genus.

Oceanic islands originate from volcanism or tectonic activity without connections to continental landmasses, are colonized by organisms, and eventually vanish due to erosion and subsidence. Colonization of oceanic islands occurs through long-distance dispersals (LDDs) or metapopulation vicariance, the latter resulting in lineages being older than the islands they inhabit. If metapopulation vicariance is valid, island ages cannot be reliably used to provide maximum age constraints for molecular dating. We explore the relationships between the ages of members of a widespread plant genus (Planchonella, Sapotaceae) and their host islands across the Pacific to test various assumptions of dispersal and metapopulation vicariance. We sampled three nuclear DNA markers from 156 accessions representing some 100 Sapotaceae taxa, and analyzed these in BEAST with a relaxed clock to estimate divergence times and with a phylogeographic diffusion model to estimate range expansions over time. The phylogeny was calibrated with a secondary point (the root) and fossils from New Zealand. The dated phylogeny reveals that the ages of Planchonella species are, in most cases, consistent with the ages of the islands they inhabit. Planchonella is inferred to have originated in the Sahul Shelf region, to which it back-dispersed multiple times. Fiji has been an important source for range expansion in the Pacific for the past 23 myr. Our analyses reject metapopulation vicariance in all cases tested, including between oceanic islands, evolution of an endemic Fiji-Vanuatu flora, and westward rollback vicariance between Vanuatu and the Loyalty Islands. Repeated dispersal is the only mechanism able to explain the empirical data. The longest (8900 km) identified dispersal is between Palau in the Pacific and the Seychelles in the Indian Ocean, estimated at 2.2 Ma (0.4-4.8 Ma). The first split in a Hawaiian lineage (P. sandwicensis) matches the age of Necker Island (11.0 Ma), when its ancestor diverged into two species that are distinguished by purple and yellow fruits. Subsequent establishment across the Hawaiian archipelago supports, in part, progression rule colonization. In summary, we found no explanatory power in metapopulation vicariance and conclude that Planchonella has expanded its range across the Pacific by LDD. We contend that this will be seen in many other groups when analyzed in detail.

Aim: To infer the biogeographical history of the avian clade Paridae (tits and chickadees) using methods based on discrete, a priori defined, geographical areas and a method that uses actual species distributions and a relaxed random walk in a Bayesian context. We compared their relative performances and how different area codings influenced the outcome in the discrete analyses. Location: Holarctic, Indomalaya, Afrotropics. Methods: The phylogeny was reconstructed using Bayesian inference and time-calibrated using published substitution rates and a fossil calibration point. The discrete analyses were performed in BioGeoBEARS. For the probabilistic diffusion analysis, the extant distribution of each species was shaped as polygons in Google Earth and analysed together with the posterior distribution of time-calibrated trees in beast. The diffusion process was modelled as a relaxed random walk. Results: The earliest divergences occurred between 10 and 15 Ma and the probabilistic diffusion analysis, and one of the discrete analyses indicated that the parids originated in the mountains of East Asia (Sino-Himalayas). Due to a different categorization of the geographical areas, a partly overlapping but conceptually different region was indicated in the second discrete analysis. Between 8 and 5 Ma parids started to spread from the Sino-Himalayas and became established in North America and Africa before 5 Ma. However, the inferred dispersal patterns differed between the analyses. Main conclusion: Overall, the analyses were congruent and together with the divergence time analysis provided a solid biogeographical history for the parids. However, some discrepancies were evident and the diffusion analysis often indicated a more stationary pattern in the Sino-Himalayas in contrast to the more widespread ancestors indicated by the discrete analyses. The discrete analyses were influenced both by the biogeographical model and delimitation of the a priori areas.

Background and AimsNepenthes attracts wide attention with its spectacularly shaped carnivorous pitchers, cultural value and horticultural curiosity. Despite the plant's iconic fascination, surprisingly little anatomical detail is known about the genus beyond its modified leaf tip traps. Here, the wood anatomical diversity of Nepenthes is explored. This diversity is further assessed with a phylogenetic framework to investigate whether the wood characters within the genus are relevant from an evolutionary or ecological perspective, or rather depend on differences in developmental stages, growth habits, substrates or precipitation.MethodsObservations were performed using light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Ancestral states of selected wood and pith characters were reconstructed using an existing molecular phylogeny for Nepenthes and a broader Caryophyllales framework. Pairwise comparisons were assessed for possible relationships between wood anatomy and developmental stages, growth habits, substrates and ecology.Key ResultsWood anatomy of Nepenthes is diffuse porous, with mainly solitary vessels showing simple, bordered perforation plates and alternate intervessel pits, fibres with distinctly bordered pits (occasionally septate), apotracheal axial parenchyma and co-occurring uni- and multiseriate rays often including silica bodies. Precipitation and growth habit (stem length) are linked with vessel density and multiseriate ray height, while soil type correlates with vessel diameter, vessel element length and maximum ray width. For Caryophyllales as a whole, silica grains, successive cambia and bordered perforation plates are the result of convergent evolution. Peculiar helical sculpturing patterns within various cell types occur uniquely within the insectivorous clade of non-core Caryophyllales.ConclusionsThe wood anatomical variation in Nepenthes displays variation for some characters dependent on soil type, precipitation and stem length, but is largely conservative. The helical-banded fibre-sclereids that mainly occur idioblastically in pith and cortex are synapomorphic for Nepenthes , while other typical Nepenthes characters evolved convergently in different Caryophyllales lineages.

Generic limits of Chrysophyllum and Pouteria (Chrysophylloideae, Sapotaceae) have been found to be untenable. We here search for natural lineages in Neotropical Chrysophylloideae by sampling 101 terminals for molecular sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA (external and internal transcribed spacer), the nuclear gene RPB2 and 17 morphological characters. Data were analysed with Bayesian inference and parsimony jackknifing. Morphological traits were finally optimized onto the tree to identify the most coherent characters. The resulting phylogenetic tree suggests that the limits of the well-known genera Chrysophyllum and Pouteria must be amended. Diploon, Ecclinusa and Elaeoluma can be maintained and Chrysophyllum sections Ragala section Prieurella and the satellite genera Achrouteria, Cornuella, Martiusella and Nemaluma merit generic resurrection. Lucuma may be restored if the type species belongs to the clade. The accepted genera Chromolucuma, Pradosia and Sarcaulus gain strong clade support, but are embedded in a core clade of Pouteria and may be relegated to the subgeneric level if morphological studies cannot provide evidence concurring with narrow generic concepts. Circumscriptions of Micropholis and Chrysophyllum sections Chrysophyllum and Villocuspis remain unclear and must be explored by using an extended taxon sampling. We predict that yet-to-be-analysed species of Pouteria sections Franchetella, Gayella, Oxythece and Pouteria and members of the currently accepted genera Chromolucuma, Pradosia and Sarcaulus will fall inside the core clade of Pouteria when analysed.

AimWe investigated the historical biogeography of the Inuleae-Plucheinae (Asteraceae), a group of arid-adapted plants with partly unresolved generic circumscriptions, in order to understand its origin and spatiotemporal evolutionary history in relation to the Cenozoic climate shifts.LocationGlobal, with highest species diversity in the Southern Hemisphere.MethodsThe spatiotemporal biogeography of the Plucheinae was estimated by both a discrete method using a set of general distribution areas, and a relaxed random walk based on extant species distributions. The topology was time calibrated using a combination of secondary node ages and secondary derived rates for included loci.ResultsOur results indicate the median age of the Plucheinae to be approximately 15.4Ma. The biogeographical analyses infer an ancestral origin in southern Africa, with the relaxed random walk analysis narrowing the uncertainty down to an area reaching from coastal Namibia to the western Kalahari. Africa was colonized in a (south)western-(north)eastern direction following the spread of arid habitats. Ancestral representatives of the Plucheinae colonized South America on at least three separate occasions (13.0-4.0, 4.3-3.1 and 4.1-3.7Ma), with one subsequent spread to North America. Australia was colonized three times between 3.6 and 0.4Ma. Madagascar and the Mascarenes were colonized at least seven times.Main conclusionsThe origin of the Plucheinae is estimated to the Namib region, with early speciations and radiations concurring with the timing of aridification of southern Africa, following the increase in strength of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and subsequent formation of the Benguela Upwelling at c.11.8Ma. The current biogeographical distribution of the Plucheinae is best explained by several Neogene long-distance dispersal events from tropical Africa.

Pottiaceae is the largest known moss family, with one of the most complex taxonomies among the bryophytes. The circumscription of genera within the Pottiaceae is challenging. Here, we elucidate the relationships among four related traditional genera of the Pottiaceae: Chionoloma, Oxystegus, Pachyneuropsis and Pseudosymblepharis, all sharing a complex taxonomic history. In order to resolve phylogenetic relationships among the four genera, a phylogeny derived from nuclear ITS and the plastid markers atpB-rbcL, trnG and trnL-F is inferred. Putative monophyly of these four genera is investigated using maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference analyses. Ancestral state reconstruction shows high levels of homoplasy in the characters historically used for the generic division of Chionoloma s.l. Based on our results, we suggest that Chionoloma, Oxystegus and Pseudosymblepharis should be merged into a single genus, for which the oldest name Chionoloma has priority. Additional analyses are needed to clarify the taxonomic status of Pachyneuropsis. New combinations are provided for those species where required, and lectotypes are designated for five names.

Phylogenetic relationships in the tribe Inuleae (Asteraceae, sunflower family) are elucidated based on a concatenated set of nuclear (ETS, ITS), and chloroplast data (ndhF, trnL-F, trnH-psbA), analysed by Bayesian and parsimony methods. Extensive sampling of representatives from both subtribes Inuleae-Inulinae and Inuleae-Plucheinae establish their reciprocal monophyly, and result in the first-ever resolved molecular phylogeny of the Inuleae-Plucheinae with new insights into the relationships and morphological character distributions between genera and among species. Of the 31 accepted genera in the Inuleae-Plucheinae, only Pseudoblepharispermum is not represented in this study, 12 monotypic genera are placed in the phylogeny, 13 genera are shown to be monophyletic, and only 5 of the remaining 18 genera are revealed to be polyphyletic. The implications for the nomenclature status of the monotypic and polyphyletic genera are discussed, together with a descriptive review of morphological characters traditionally used to circumscribe the genera in this subtribe.

The phylogeny of Rutaceae subfamily Aurantioideae has previously been estimated only using plastid and repetitive nuclear sequences. We added sequences of two low copy nuclear loci to allow further diagnosis of phenomena that may mislead phylogenetic inference. After testing for patterns expected under recombination, positive selection, and hybridization, we excluded data sets or sequences accordingly and then inferred the species tree using the multispecies coalescent. We then reconstructed the ancestral area using parsimony and the dispersal-extinction-cladogenesis model to test the hypothesis that Citrus s. l. may have originated in Australasia and migrated or rafted to Eastern Asia. The ancestral area of Citrus s. l. inferred under either method and several models was west of Wallace's line. Therefore, Citrus s. l. did not appear to have rafted west on what became the Halmahera Islands (Indonesia). Our findings are also consistent with previously reported ages for the origin of this group that may be too young to have allowed this rafting. The species tree is well resolved and largely consistent with previous molecular phylogenies, especially those using chloroplast sequences.

Recent phylogenetic studies in Sapotaceae have demonstrated that many genera need to be redefined to better correspond to natural groups. The Neotropical genus Pradosia is believed to be monophyletic and includes 26 recognized species. Here we reconstruct the generic phylogeny by a species-tree approach using (∗)BEAST, 21 recognized species (36 accessions), sequence data from three nuclear markers (ITS, ETS, and RPB2), a relaxed lognormal clock model, and a fossil calibration. We explore the evolution of five selected morphological characters, reconstruct the evolution of habitat (white-sand vs. clayish soils) preference, as well as space and time by using a recently developed continuous diffusion model in biogeography. We find Pradosia to be monophyletic in its current circumscription and to have originated in the Amazon basin at ∼47.5Ma. Selected morphological characters are useful to readily distinguish three clades. Preferences to white-sand and/or clay are somewhat important for the majority of species, but speciation has not been powered by habitat shifts. Pradosia brevipes is a relative young species (∼1.3Ma) that has evolved a unique geoxylic life strategy within Pradosia and is restricted to savannahs. Molecular dating and phylogenetic pattern indicate that Pradosia reached the Brazilian Atlantic coast at least three times: at 34.4Ma (P. longipedicellata), at 11.7Ma (P. kuhlmannii), and at 3.9Ma (weakly supported node within the red-flowered clade).

Pycnandra (Sapotaceae), the largest endemic genus in New Caledonia, comprises 66 species classified in six subgenera. We tested phylogenetic relationships and a proposed infrageneric classification by sampling 60 species for sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA (ETS, ITS, RPB2) and plastid DNA (trnH-psbA) and nine morphological characters. Data were analysed with Bayesian inference, parsimony jackknifing and lineage through time. We recovered a phylogenetic tree supporting the recognition of six proposed subgenera (Achradotypus, Leptostylis, Pycnandra, Sebertia, Trouettia and Wagapensia). Because a subgeneric classification is used, the nomenclature will be stable when the members are transferred to Pycnandra. Morphological traits were optimized in the BEAST analysis, adding evidence to earlier work that morphology has limited value for successfully diagnosing groups in Sapotaceae. We confirm a previously suspected case of cryptic species that exhibit the same morphological features and require the same abiotic conditions, but are distantly related in the phylogenetic tree. We detected two possible new cases of cryptic sibling species that might warrant recognition. A slowdown in speciation rate in several genera has been suggested as evidence that New Caledonia was once submerged after rifting from Australia. Plotting lineages through time reveals two important intervals at 7.5-8.6Ma and present to 1.5Ma, when net molecular diversification within the genus was zero. This indicates that the genus presently has reached a dynamic equilibrium, providing additional evidence that New Caledonia is an old Darwinian island, being submerged during the Eocene and colonized after re-emergence c. 37Ma.(c) 2015 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2015, 179, 57-77.