The prickly pear cactus, Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Miller, is the most economically important Cactaceae species worldwide. It thrives in arid and semiarid agricultural lands with minimal inputs, providing benefits such as livestock fodder, fruit, and vegetable production. The South American cactus moth, Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg), represents the most important insect pest of prickly pear crops. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of C. cactorum feeding on O. ficus-indica plants in a plantation in northwestern Argentina. Fruit production, fruit attributes, and plant size were evaluated under increasing C. cactorum pest densities in a manipulative 3-yr-long experiment (2018 to 2020). In the 2019 harvest, the increase in the pest density significantly reduced the number of fruits produced/plant. Plants with the highest pest density produced 60% fewer fruits than pest-free plants. In the 2020 harvest, the reduction was marginal. Fruit and pulp weights significantly declined with increasing C. cactorum densities in both years. No effect occurred on plant size or fruit sweetness. This was the first effort to measure the magnitude of the impact of C. cactorum on a cactus crop species and provides crucial information for prickly pear fruit producers. This information is helpful to implement more effective preventive and control measures to protect producers' investment and ensure a profitable harvest. Further studies in younger plantations and other areas will help develop an economic damage threshold level to support Integrated Pest Management decisions to limit C. cactorum's impact.

Functional response describes the number of hosts attacked by a parasitoid in relation to host densities and plays an important role by connecting behavioral-level processes with community-level processes. Most functional response studies were carried out using simple experimental designs where the insects were confined to a plain and small arena with different host densities during a fixed period of time. With these designs, other factors that might affect the functional response of parasitoids were not analyzed, such as fecundity, age, and experience. We proposed a series of latent-variables Markovian models that comprised an integrated approach of functional response and egg production models to estimate the realized lifetime reproductive success of parasitoids. As a case study, we used the parasitoids Anagyrus cachamai and A. lapachosus (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), two candidate agents for neoclassical biocontrol of the Puerto Rican cactus pest mealybug, Hypogeococcus sp. (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). The tested species were assessed according to their physiology and prior experience. We estimated the number of mature eggs after emergence, egg production on the first day, egg production rate, the proportion of eggs resorbed, egg resorption threshold, and egg storage capacity. Anagyrus cachamai and A. lapachosus both presented a type III functional response. However, the two parasitoids behaved differently; for A. cachamai, the number of parasitized hosts decreased with female age and depended on the number of mature eggs that were available for oviposition, whereas A. lapachosus host parasitism increased with female age and was modulated by its daily egg load and previous experience. The methodology presented may have large applicability in pest control, invasive species management, and conservation biology, as it has the potential to increase our understanding of the reproductive biology of a wide variety of species, ultimately leading to improved management strategies.

Insect damage to a plant activates induced defenses, which include releases of herbivore induced plant volatiles (HIPVs) that attract natural enemies and usually repel generalist herbivores. Oppositely, most herbivore specialists have evolved responses against these defenses, and in many cases are attracted to host HIPVs. However, it is not clear if a specialist is able to discriminate HIPVs released by conspecifics, other specialists, or generalist damage. Dioscorea bulbifera is an invasive vine native to Asia and Africa with infestations in the southeastern United States, Hawai’i, and Puerto Rico. A host specific biological control agent, Lilioceris cheni (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) was introduced in 2011 to control D. bulbifera. Recently, a new host specific biological control agent, Lilioceris egena, has been released to improve the biological control program for D. bulbifera. In this study, attraction of L. cheni to HIPVs from generalist, Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae); specialist, L. egena; and conspecific damage were investigated. Behavioral assays indicated L. cheni had preference for any type of herbivore damaged plants compared to undamaged plants and discriminated between conspecific damaged plants in the presence of generalist damaged plants, favoring conspecific damaged plants. Differently damaged D. bulbifera plants were then evaluated using gas chromatography coupled with mass spectroscopy which revealed significant quantitative differences between both the specialists’ herbivore damage compared to the generalist volatile profiles with induction of 11 volatiles and suppression of four. This study highlights the importance of understanding an invasive plant’s response to specialist and generalist damage for better management of the invasive species.

Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), the cactus moth, is native to South America with a widespread distribution in Argentina. The larvae consume the interior of Opuntia spp. (Cactaceae) plants. The moth was used as a biocontrol agent against invasive non-native Opuntia spp. in many countries around the world. The cactus moth arrived unintentionally in Florida, USA, expanded its range and threatened Opuntia-based agriculture and natural ecosystems in southern North America. The insect is also a pest of cultivated O. ficus-indica L. in Argentina. An endemic South American parasitoid, Goniozus legneri Gordth (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae), is used in inundative biological control programmes against lepidopteran pests. The goal of this work was to evaluate G. legneri as a biocontrol agent to be used in inundative releases against C. cactorum. Mortality of C. cactorum by G. legneri was assessed at different spatial scales, as well as the interactions with Apanteles opuntiarum Martínez & Berta (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), a common Argentine natural enemy of C. cactorum. The ability of G. legneri to paralyse, parasitise and kill C. cactorum was confirmed. The paralysis inflicted on C. cactorum larvae reduced larval damage to the plants by 85%. Using two parasitoid species increased the mortality of C. cactorum larvae, but it was highly dependent on the order of their arrival. The combined mortality caused by both parasitoids was higher than a single one, in particular when G. legneri arrived first (56 ± 1%), suggesting asymmetric competition due to the preference of G. legneri attacking previously parasitised larvae. Goniozus legneri has potential as an inundative biocontrol agent of C. cactorum, but its interaction with the classical biocontrol agent A. opuntiarum needs to be considered.

Purposeful manipulation of biological control programs, such as timed releases of biological control agents, can be ephemeral and difficult to expand into new areas impacted by the targeted invasive plant. Integration of chemical ecology through attractive semiochemical lures to aggregate biological control agents to un-colonized areas can help mitigate this challenge. The invasive air potato vine, Dioscorea bulbifera L., is native to Asia and Africa with invasive infestations in the southeastern United States, Hawai’i, and Puerto Rico. In 2011, a host specific biological control agent, Lilioceris cheni (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), was introduced to manage D. bulbifera. Synthetic and racemic blends of previously identified attractive herbivory induced plant volatiles (HIPVs), ocimene and farnesene, were first evaluated for antennal response through electroantennography, then deployed as potential attractive lures in field conditions. Electroantennogram results validated the ability of adult male and female L. cheni to detect the two compounds. When used in field conditions, adult L. cheni beetles showed increased response to plants with ocimene and farnesene lures compared to control plants. The chemically enhanced lures increased L. cheni adult densities on D. bulbifera plants in the field compared to control plants. Plants with higher densities of L. cheni had greater direct herbivore feeding damage and observed cupped leaves, indicating the presence of oviposition and future larval development. The information gathered in this study indicated that the use of attractant semiochemical lures to purposefully aggregate and direct movement of biological control agents can improve the efficacy of invasive plant biocontrol programs.

Landscape heterogeneity and the host plant use are factors suggested to play determinant roles in shaping the evolutionary history of herbivorous insects. However, the role of the reconfiguration of host plants distributions linked to Quaternary climate oscillations as drivers of contemporary population genetic structure is still poorly understood. Here, we formally examine the relative contribution of such factors on intraspecific diversification using the South American cactus moth, Cactoblastis cactorum, an herbivore insect specialized in the use of cacti as host plants. We assessed genomic variation using genome-wide SNPs and mitochondrial data in populations sampled across a broad geographical gradient where moths feed on different cactus species. We integrated demographic simulations and ecological niche modeling into a landscape genomics framework, to test alternative hypotheses of past and current population connectivity for both C. cactorum and its host plants. Regions exhibiting higher genomic diversity were evaluated for congruence with areas where suitable climatic conditions remained stable through time. Our results revealed that past spatial configuration of suitable habitat conditions and shifts of host plants distributions are the factors that better explain the intraspecific diversification. Genomic data also supported the hypothesis that areas of long-term habitat stability served as refugia for C. cactorum, enabling the maintenance of high levels of genetic diversity over time. Overall, our study highlights the importance of integrating inter-specific interactions and their spatio-temporal dynamics to better understand the relative importance of abiotic and biotic factors driving the diversification processes in herbivorous insects with broad geographical and restricted host ranges.

Air potato, Dioscorea bulbifera L. (Dioscoreaceae), is an invasive vine that climbs into vegetation outcompeting native species and altering ecosystems in the southeastern USA. The biological control agent, Lilioceris cheni Gressitt and Kimoto (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), has been released in Florida since 2011 and in other states including Georgia (2015), Louisiana (2016), Texas (2017), Mississippi (2018), and Alabama (2018) to manage air potato. Despite the wide distribution of the weed and mass rearing efforts, there are no studies documenting the establishment of L. cheni outside of Florida. The objectives of this study were to document the beetle release efforts by several agencies and determine the establishment and impact of L. cheni across the southeastern USA. Using community science reports and field surveys, we documented the distribution of air potato and L. cheni. Results demonstrated that the distribution of air potato extends to temperate regions from South Carolina and Georgia to subtropical regions of Louisiana, Texas, and Florida. Surveys showed that the beetle is present across all states with releases, and numbers fluctuated between 6 and 37 beetles counted per 30-surveyor-minutes. Most sites sampled had moderate to high beetle damage (scales of 3-4 out of 5), and air potato cover was low to moderate (2-3 out of 5). However, air potato was still abundant in some areas, which suggests the need for additional beetle releases and/or the use of other tactics to achieve management goals.

Air potato, Dioscorea bulbifera L., is an invasive vine found in the southeastern United States and is native to Asia and Africa. The air potato leaf beetle Lilioceris cheni (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), is a host specific biological control agent introduced for D. bulbifera control. In this study, odor cues that control the attraction of L. cheni to D. bulbifera were investigated. The first experiment investigated the response of L. cheni to D. bulbifera leaves versus no leaves in the presence or absence of air flow. The experiment showed a significant response of L. cheni to D. bulbifera leaves in the presence of air flow with leaves placed upwind. When air flow and/or leaves were absent, L. cheni dispersed randomly between the upwind and downwind targets, indicating L. cheni uses volatiles from D. bulbifera in host selection. The second experiment investigated L. cheni response to undamaged, larval-damaged, and adult-damaged plants. Lilioceris cheni showed preference to move towards conspecific damaged plants compared to undamaged plants but did not discriminate between larvae-damaged or adult-damaged plants. The third experiment investigated volatile profiles of damaged D. bulbifera plants using gas chromatography coupled with mass spectroscopy. We found significant differences in volatile profiles between adult and larval damaged plants compared to mechanically damaged and undamaged plants, with increases in 11 volatile compounds. However, larval and adult-damaged volatile profiles did not differ. The information acquired during this study could be used to develop strategies to monitor for L. cheni and improve its biological control program.

Many ground beetle species (Coleoptera: Carabidae) prey on noctuid larvae and pupae. Therefore, agricultural practices that maintain or even en-hance carabid populations have the potential to reduce noctuid pest populations through predation. One such pest is the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), a migratory pest of row, turf, and vegetable crops. Before migrating in spring from southern Florida and southern Texas, it feeds and develops on cover crops such as field corn and sorghum-sudangrass and expands its populations. Here we sampled the species and density of carabid populations that were active in cover crops with differing capacity to support fall armyworm development. Three cover crop species, sorghum-sudangrass, cowpea, and sunn hemp, were previously studied for their effects on fall armyworm populations, with sunn hemp showing high incompatibility with fall armyworm development. The cover crops were grown in 3 locations in north and north-central Florida and pitfall traps were used to compare numbers of carabid beetles caught in different cover crop treatments. Almost 2,000 predatory and omnivorous carabid beetles were collected. Three species in particular, Calosoma sayi Dejean, Tetracha carolina (L.), and Cicindela punctulata Olivier, are known predators of S. frugiperda in the laboratory and may aid in the reduction of populations in the field. There were no differences in beetle numbers among cover crop plants. In another trial, more beetles were collected in plots of a popular sunn hemp cultivar developed in the southeastern U.S., 'AU Golden', than in plots of another germplasm line, Tillage SunnTM. Further research should determine if the predatory species found in this study prey on S. frugiperda in the field and if this added mortality helps reduce crop damage.

Hypogeococcus pungens is a species complex native to southern South America that is composed of at least five putative species, each one specialized in the use of different host plants. Two of these undescribed species were registered as invasive in Central and North America: Hyp-C is a cactophagous mealybug that became an important pest that threatens endemic cactus species in Puerto Rico, and Hyp-AP feeds on Amaranthaceae and Portulacaceae hosts, but does not produce severe damage to the host plants. We quantified genomic variation and investigated the demographic history of both invasive species by means of coalescent-based simulations using high throughput sequencing data. We also evaluated the incidence of host plant infestation produced by both species and used an ecological niche modeling approach to assess potential distribution under current and future climatic scenarios. Our genetic survey evinced the footprints of strong effective population size reduction and signals of genetic differentiation among populations within each species. Incidence of plant attacks varied between species and among populations within species, with some host plant species preferred over others. Ecological niche modeling suggested that under future climatic scenarios both species would expand their distribution ranges in Puerto Rico. These results provide valuable information for the design of efficient management and control strategies of the Puerto Rican cactus pest and shed light on the evolutionary pathways of biological invasions.

Ecological host range testing complements pre-release fundamental host range testing by offering a more realistic picture of insect host plant use in the field, including spillover risk. The biological control program targeting the weed Schinus terebinthifolia Raddi (Anacardiaceae) first released the flush-feeding thrips Pseudophilothrips ichini (Hood) (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae) in Florida in 2019. Pre-release quarantine testing indicated that P. ichini could oviposit and develop on ten host plant species, two of which (Rhus sandwicensis and Dodonaea viscosa) are culturally and ecologically important in Hawaii, where S. terebinthifolia is also a serious weed. We performed two open field experiments, one to simulate temporary spillover and one to simulate continuous spillover and determine if P. ichini could damage non-target plants under natural conditions. In the first experiment, P. ichini thrips dispersed from most non-targets within 24 h, did not move onto non-target plants following the cutting of adjacent S. terebinthifolia plants at soil level, and produced larvae only on R. sandwicensis. In the second experiment, S. terebinthifolia plant quality declined from P. ichini feeding damage, the thrips dispersed more quickly from non-target plants than S. terebinthifolia, produced larvae only on the weed S. terebinthifolia, and did

Heteroperreyia hubrichi, a foliage feeding sawfly of Schinus terebinthifolius, was studied to assess its suitability as a classical biological control agent of this invasive weed in Hawai'i. No-choice host-specificity tests were conducted in Hawaiian quarantine on 20 plant species in 10 families. Adult females oviposited on four test species. Females accepted the Hawaiian native Rhus sandwicensis as an oviposition host equally as well as the target species. The other three species received dramatically fewer eggs. Neonate larvae transferred onto test plants successfully developed to pupae on S. terebinthifolius (70% survival) and R. sandwicensis (1 % survival). All other 18 test plant species failed to support larval development. A risk assessment was conducted to quantrfy the suitability of non-target plants as a host to H. hubrichi on the basis of the insects' performance at various stages in its life cycle. Risk to all plant species tested was insignificant except R. sandwicensis. Risk to this native plant relative to S. terebinthifolius was estimated at 1 %. Currently this is too high a risk to request introduction of this insect into the Hawaiian environment. Detailed impact studres in tne name range of S. tere6inthmliu.s are needed to identi the potential benefit that this insect offers. Also, field studies in South America with potted R. sandwicensis would give more reliable analysis of this plants riskfrom natural populations of H. hubrichi.

Raw reads were demultiplexed, filtered and assembled using iPYRAD v0.9.59 (Eaton and Overcast, 2020). Demultiplexing was done using the unique barcode and adapter sequences. Then, samples’ reads were filtered using the stricter filter for Illumina adapters, and filtered to clean up the edges of poor quality reads. A Reference based assembly method was implemented using the reference draft genome CactoFuEDEI.fa. We set 2 as the maximum number of unique alleles allowed in consensus reads, and ran ipyrad to obtain four datasets, each one controlling 25%, 50%, 80% and 90% of the minimum number of samples per locus (msl), respectively.

Surveys of patterns of genetic variation in natural sympatric and allopatric populations of recently diverged species are necessary to understand the processes driving intra- and interspecific diversification. The South American moths Cactoblastis cactorum, Cactoblastis doddi and Cactoblastis bucyrus are specialized in the use of cacti as host plants. These species have partially different geographic ranges and differ in patterns of host plant use. However, there are areas that overlap, particularly, in northwestern Argentina, where they are sympatric. Using a combination of genome-wide SNPs and mitochondrial data we assessed intra and interspecific genetic variation and investigated the relative roles of geography and host plants on genetic divergence. We also searched for genetic footprints of hybridization between species. We identified three well delimited species and detected signs of hybridization in the area of sympatry. Our results supported a hypothetical scenario of allopatric speciation in the generalist C. cactorum and genetic interchange during secondary geographic contact with the pair of specialists C. bucyrus and C. doddi that probably speciated sympatrically. In both cases, adaptation to new host plants probably played an important role in speciation. The results also suggested the interplay of geography and host plant use as drivers of divergence and limiting gene flow at intra and interspecific levels.

When two or more parasitoid species, particularly candidates for biocontrol, share the same target in the same temporal window, a complex of behaviors can occur among them. We studied the type of interactions (competition and intraguild predation) that existed between the nymphal parasitoids Anagyrus cachamai and A. lapachosus (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), two candidate neoclassical biocontrol agents against the Puerto Rican cactus pest mealybug, Hypogeococcus sp. (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). The surrogate native congener host in Argentina, the cactus mealybug Hypogeococcus sp., was studied to predict which species should be released; in the case that both should be released, in which order, and their potential impact on host suppression. In the laboratory we conducted experiments where different densities of the host mealybug were exposed to naive females of A. cachamai and A. lapachosus sequentially in both directions. Experiments were analyzed by combining a series of competitive behavioral and functional response models. A fully Bayesian approach was used to select the best explaining models and calculate their parameters. Intraguild predation existed between A. cachamai, the species that had the greatest ability to exploit the resource, and A. lapachosus, the strongest species in the interference competition. The role that intraguild predation played in suppression of Hypogeococcus sp. indicated that a multiple release strategy for the two biocontrol agents would produce better control than a single release; as for the release order, A. lapachosus should be released first.

Identified and reviewed taxonomically are the hyperparasitoids (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) in Argentina and Paraguay associated with Hypogeococcus spp. (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), mealybugs that feed on various native cacti (Cactaceae) as well as some Amaranthaceae and Portulacaceae. The following genera and species were collected and reared in the course of surveys conducted in Argentina during 2010–2019 and in Paraguay during 2016–2019: Chartocerus argentinus (Brèthes) stat. rev. [reinstated as a valid species from the previous synonymy with Chartocerus niger (Ashmead)] and Chartocerus axillaris De Santis from Argentina (Signiphoridae), an undescribed Cheiloneurus sp. from Paraguay and Prochiloneurus argentinensis (De Santis) from Argentina (Encyrtidae). These are secondary parasitoids via Encyrtidae primary parasitoids of Hypogeococcus sp., candidate biological control agents against a Hypogeococcus sp. (commonly called the Harrisia cactus mealybug) that is devastating the native columnar cacti in Puerto Rico. The previously unknown male of Chartocerus argentinus is described, and a lectotype is designated for Signiphora argentina Brèthes. Taxonomic notes are provided for Ablerus platensis (Brèthes) (Hymenoptera: Azotidae), for which a lectotype is designated (for Dimacrocerus platensis Brèthes); it is newly recorded from Paraguay. Hyperparasitoids can be detrimental to biological control programs, but their impact has often been unknown or underestimated. Taxonomic identification of the hyperparasitoids is the first step in assessing the potential negative impact to the natural control of Hypogeococcus spp. in South America.

Cactoblastis cactorum's unintended arrival to Florida and its expansion in North America represent a threat to Opuntia ‐based agriculture and natural ecosystems in the United States and Mexico. Apanteles opuntiarum attacks C. cactorum and is a potential biocontrol agent due to its specificity, wide distribution and occurrence. Laboratory rearing methods using excised cladodes for C. cactorum as host larvae of A. opuntiarum were developed, but require a continuous supply of cactus with a risk of microorganisms compromising the rearing. Host cues —including odour of host metabolic subproducts like faeces and chemicals emitted by the attacked plant— are the most important signals that help a parasitoid locate a host. Little attention has been paid to behavioural differences of parasitoids in the presence of hosts reared on artificial diet. Thus, the aims of the present work were to determine the effect of meridic diet for C. cactorum on parasitoid behaviour and to determine whether prior experience (previous exposure to stimuli) influences the response of A. opuntiarum towards hosts. Parasitism rates were assessed using cladodes or meridic diet as larvae food source. Behavioural experiments also evaluated the effect of prior experience (larvae or frass from larvae fed on cactus or diet) on host searching, encounter and attack of different stimulus (larvae or frass from larvae fed on cactus or diet). Parasitism behaviour of A. opuntiarum was negatively affected by the use of meridic diet to feed host larvae . Presenting parasitoids with larvae rather than their frass influenced excitatory behavioural responses in terms of contact, probing and stinging in A. opuntiarum females, whereas the effect of prior experience on the behaviours was not quite consistent. For laboratory mass‐rearing procedures of A. opuntiarum , we recommend previous contact of females with frass from cactus‐fed larvae and a piece of cactus, which showed enhanced parasitism rates.

The Convention on Biological Diversity and the Nagoya Protocol establish that genetic resources shall be accessed only upon the existence of prior informed consent of the country that provides those resources and that benefits arising from their utilization shall be shared. Pursuant to both agreements several countries have adopted regulations on access and benefit-sharing. These regulations have created a challenging obstacle to classical biological control of weeds. This paper reviews the experiences of Argentina, Brazil, South Africa, the USA, Canada and CABI in implementing access and benefit-sharing regulations and the implications these measures have on the effective and efficient access, exchange and utilization of biological control agents. We conclude that policy makers should be made aware of the key role biological control plays for agriculture and the environment and they are encouraged to develop tailored access and benefit-sharing legal frameworks that facilitate biological control research and implementation.

The cactus moth, Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), is an invasive species in North America where it threatens Opuntia native populations. The insect is expanding its distribution along the United States Gulf Coast. In the search for alternative strategies to reduce its impact, the introduction of a natural enemy, Apanteles opuntiarum Martínez and Berta (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), is being pursued as a biological control option. To identify promising areas to intentionally introduce A. opuntiarum for the control of C. cactorum, we estimated the overlap of fundamental ecological niches of the two species to predict their common geographic distributions using the BAM diagram. Models were based on native distributional data for both species, 19 bioclimatic variables, and the Maxent algorithm to calculate the environmental suitability of both species in North America. The environmental suitability of C. cactorum in North America was projected from Florida to Texas (United States) along the Gulf coastal areas, reaching Mexico in northern regions. Apanteles opuntiarum environmental suitability showed a substantial similarity with the calculations for C. cactorum in the United States. Intentional introductions of A. opuntiarum in the actual distribution areas of the cactus moth are predicted to be successful; A. opuntiarum will find its host in an environment conducive to its survival and dispersal.

Primary and secondary parasitoids of Hypogeococcus spp. (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) on Cactaceae, Amaranthaceae, and Portulacaceae were reported from field surveys conducted in Puerto Rico, USA, since 2009. Resident natural enemies of the Harrisia cactus mealybug (HCM), Hypogeococcus sp., which is devastating native cacti in Puerto Rico and threatening cacti in the adjacent Caribbean islands, were documented prior to the planned introductions of non-native biological control agents from South America against this pest. Two species of Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) were recorded as primary parasitoids of the HCM on Cactaceae: Leptomastidea hypogeococci Triapitsyn, which was the most common, and Anagyrus quilmes Triapitsyn, Logarzo & Aguirre. Another primary parasitoid, Acerophagus sp. near nubilipennis Dozier (Encyrtidae), was also reared from a different Hypogeococcus sp. on Amaranthaceae and Portulacaceae. Hyperparasitoids, usually via L. hypogeococci, included Prochiloneurus narendrani Noyes & Triapitsyn (Encyrtidae), Pachyneuron sp. (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae), Chartocerus elongatus (Girault), and Chartocerus niger (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera: Signiphoridae). Cheiloneurus chrisiantorresi Triapitsyn sp. n. (Encyrtidae) is newly described and illustrated; its status as a suspect hyperparasitoid of Hypogeococcus sp. on Amaranthaceae and Portulacaceae, along with that of Cheiloneurus sp., will need to be verified. The recorded HCM predators include one species of Chamaemyiidae (Diptera), Leucopina bella (Loew), and three species of Coccinellidae (Coleoptera): Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant, Decadiomus austrinus (Gordon), and Scymnobius flavifrons (Melsheimer).