From June 1993 to June 2003, 40 adult female brown bears (Ursus arctos) were captured, radiocollared, and tracked for 1 to 10 years in a previously unstudied population in southwest Alaska. Mean litter size upon emergence from dens was 2.0, decreasing to 1.5 at weaning. Mean age of offspring at weaning was 2.9. Mean age of primiparity was 7.2 years while first weaning was estimated at 9.5 years. Mean maximum age of a female weaning a litter was 27.3 years. Mean annual survival estimates were 90.1-97.2% for radiocollared females >= 5 years old, 48.2-61.7% for cubs of the year, and 73.3-83.8% for 1 and 2-year-old offspring combined. Of 129 offspring followed beginning with their first summer, 38 (29.5%) survived to be weaned. Hunters harvested at least 12 marked or radiocollared bears (9 males and 3 females). No defense of life and property (DLP) killings were reported within or near the study area, but illegal harvests of brown bears were known to have occurred in the general region. Harvests within or near the study area averaged 7.3-12.1 males/year and 4.8-5.2 females/year. This population's rate of increase (lambda) was estimated as 1.035-1.047 for the first half of the study, 0.963-0.997 for the second half, and was found to be most sensitive to survival of females 5-14 years old.

A large barren-ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus granti) population (the Bering Seacoast Herd) historically ranged across southwest Alaska. The size of this herd peaked in the earl), 1860s but declined by the late 1880s. Caribou numbers remained low in southwest Alaska for the next 100 years. Biologists have argued that periodic dispersal has been an important factor in caribou population dynamics. However, others conclude there was no credible evidence that significant interchange between herds has ever occurred in Alaska. Since 1981, we monitored 318 radiocollared caribou and documented dramatic population growth, erratic movements, shifts from traditional ranges, and changes in migratory behavior. We also documented shifts in calving distribution that may contrast with conventional concepts of calving tradition and herd identity. Some biologists have concluded caribou herds can be considered closed populations for management purposes because the number of dispersing caribou is so small that it has no influence on population dynamics. We propose that the current definition of a herd may be appropriate for short-term management; however, over long time frames and large spatial scales, metapopulations may better describe caribou ecology and be more useful in long-term caribou conservation.

Abstract Between 1993 and 2003, 40 adult female brown bears (Ursus arctos) were radiocollared and monitored in the southwest Kuskokwim Mountains of Alaska. The 95% kernel home range size for individuals with ≥50 relocations (n = 20) ranged from 93–623 km2 (x̄ = 356 km2). Bears occupied lower elevations during July and August (x̄ = 454 m) when salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) were available and higher elevations in September (x̄ = 520 m), presumably to feed on berries, ground squirrels (Spermophilus parryii), and caribou (Rangifer tarandus). During the denning period, bears moved to higher average elevations (x̄ = 632 m), generally remaining through June (x̄ = 570 m). Radiomarked females entered the den in mid October and exited in mid May. There was fidelity to denning areas, with an average distance between consecutive dens of 4.5 km (SD = 3.1). Females with cubs were found at higher average elevations than females without young or with yearlings. Radiomarked females were found closer to anadromous streams from 16 July–15 August, coinciding with chinook (O. tschawytscha), chum (O. keta), and sockeye salmon (O. nerka) availability. Beginning in 1998, chinook and chum salmon escapement was low in the Kuskokwim drainage. There was an inverse relationship between measures of salmon availability and bear distances to anadromous streams. This indicates that although the study area was at the fringe of salmon range, salmon abundance influenced bear seasonal movements and distribution. With reduced salmon availability, this area may support a lower bear density, and brown bear population management should be considered in salmon escapement goals.

The Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA; P.L. [Public Law] 96-487) of 1980 mandated that rural Alaskans be given priority use of fish and wildlife on federal public lands for subsistence purposes. This concept conflicts with the Alaska Constitution, which guarantees equal access to resources to all users. The resulting conflict spawned a dual state/federal management system and considerable controversy. In southwestern Alaska, this dilemma is exacerbated by the equally dominant cultures of indigenous Yup'ik Eskimos and more recent immigrants from western cultures. Although wildlife conservation is an important goal of both cultures, management philosophies and practices are dissimilar and sometimes contradictory. This is especially true for brown bears (Ursus arctos), which hold an important place in Yup'ik culture and are highly prized by trophy hunters. In 1991 and 1992, brown bear subsistence hunting seasons were significantly liberalized in southwest Alaska. In recognition of the potential danger of this liberalization, the state and federal regulatory boards concurrently stipulated a research program to determne bear density and harvestable surplus in a representative portion of the area. We began the investigation in 1993, but have been hampered by conflicts between Yup'ik and western beliefs. Nevertheless, we have gained important insights into dynamics of the bear population and attained a better appreciation for Yup'ik traditions. Our null hypothesis was that bear density could withstand increased harvest pressure associated with liberalized hunting seasons. We captured 60 bears and radioracked 30 adult females for 3-4 yrs each. Our data suggest a stable population with a low reproductive rate. Although we were unable to determine population density, preliminary estimates suggest it is comparable to other areas in interior and northwestern Alaska.

The Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA; P.L. (Public Law) 96-487) of 1980 mandated that rural Alaskans be given priority use of fish and wildlife on federal public lands for subsistence purposes. This concept conflicts with the Alaska Constitution, which guarantees equal access to resources to all users. The resulting conflict spawned a dual state/federal management system and considerable contro- versy. In southwestern Alaska, this dilemma is exacerbated by the equally dominant cultures of indigenous Yup'ik Eskimos and more recent immigrants from western cultures. Although wildlife conservation is an important goal of both cultures, management philosophies and practices are dissimilar and sometimes contradictory. This is especially true for brown bears (Ursus arctos), which hold an important place in Yup'ik culture and are highly prized by trophy hunters. In 1991 and 1992, brown bear subsistence hunting seasons were significantly liberalized in southwest Alaska. In recognition of the potential danger of this liberalization, the state and federal regulatory boards concurrently stipulated a research program to determine bear density and harvestable surplus in a representative portion of the area. We began the investigation in 1993, but have been hampered by conflicts between Yup'ik and western beliefs. Nevertheless, we have gained important insights into dynamics of the bear population and attained a better appreciation for Yup'ik traditions. Our null hypothesis was that bear density could withstand increased harvest pressure associated with liberalized hunting seasons. We captured 60 bears and radiotracked 30 adult females for 3-4 yrs each. Our data suggest a stable population with a low reproductive rate. Although we were unable to determine population density, preliminary estimates suggest it is comparable to other areas in interior and northwestern Alaska. Perhaps the greatest challenge facing wildlife manag- ers in Alaska comes from political and cultural vagaries inherent in working with individuals and organizations with diverse interests and traditions. Our experiences while investigating a population of brown bears (Ursus arctos) in the Kuskokwim Mountains of southwest Alaska serves as a focal point where all aspects of this challenge have crystallized, and where we have learned important lessons about how to integrate traditional knowledge and modem science. In 1991 and 1992, state and federal regulatory boards significantly liberalized brown bear hunting regulations for subsistence hunters in southwest Alaska. The bear population affected by this liberalization had never been investigated, and little was known about its population characteristics. The Federal Subsistence Board (FSB) and the Regional Director of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- vice (USFWS) recognized the insufficiency of manage- ment data and directed staff to study the brown bear population. The purpose of this paper is 2-fold. First, we find it essential that the cultural history and perspective of this bear conservation conflict be fully explained to give rel- evance and insight to the reader. Second, we have col- lected substantial biological data which are key to assessing the potential effects of bear harvesting in the study area. These 2 critical aspects of bear management are presented together here because either one presented by itself would be of much lesser value.