Rivers worldwide have been geomorphologically degraded by damming, channelization, and floodplain disconnection, reducing the extent of riparian habitat and complicating restoration planning. We developed and evaluated a novel, system-wide workflow that integrates height-above-river (HAR) metrics with a random forest classifier to model riparian vegetation distribution, assess geomorphic condition, and estimate restoration potential. This approach is, to our knowledge, the first to generate a probabilistic land-cover model based solely on HAR and to use this relationship to support reach-scale restoration prioritization. Applied to a regulated river in California, the model predicted six land-cover classes from HAR with 88% overall accuracy (kappa = 0.76), capturing clear vertical patterns in vegetation distribution. These relationships were used to define six elevation-based zones (aquatic, core riparian, marginal riparian, transition, valley oak, and out-of-channel) that represent functional differences in hydrologic connectivity and vegetation structure. Using these zones, 25 geomorphologically uniform reaches were delineated and classified by degradation based on the relative extent of low-elevation riparian area versus elevated, disconnected floodplain surfaces. Restoration potential, defined as the area of core riparian habitat that could be created through floodplain lowering and channel narrowing, varied from 2.3 to 33.9 ha per reach. Across the study area, restoration could increase core riparian habitat by 186% (197 ha). Because the workflow relies only on LiDAR-derived topography and aerial imagery, which are becoming widely available, it is intended as a system-scale planning tool for use by land managers prior to field-based geomorphic design assessments, such as those used in restoration implementation projects.

Context Habitat connectivity is key when designing reserve networks for conservation of species at risk. Acquiring land over time to achieve connectivity for multiple species in a systematic conservation plan can pose a challenge because not all high priority parcels will be acquired, species occurrence data is often limited, and using multiple species models together is complex. Objectives We evaluated four possible land acquisition strategies in a such a plan in their ability to meet each of three objectives. The strategies represent different combinations of what are termed ‘Priority 1’, ‘Priority 2’, and ‘Corridor’ lands in the plan. The objectives are to (1) meet conservation target acreages identified in the plan; these are distinct from connectivity goals, (2) maximize structural habitat connectivity, and (3) maximize connectivity for multiple focal species. Methods For this case study in Yolo County, California, we compared the efficiency of strategies to meet conservation targets using MARXAN. We compared structural connectivity of MARXAN solutions for each strategy using FRAGSTATS and distance between patches using ArcGIS. We compared focal species connectivity by using ArcGIS to define species-specific least cost networks and then assessing each network’s conformity with MARXAN solutions. Results ‘Priority 1’ parcels and ‘Corridor’ parcels together provide (1) the most efficient solution for attaining conservation targets, (2) the highest structural connectivity, and (3) high connectivity for the greatest number of focal species. Conclusions Because land acquisition patterns are time sensitive and data may be limited, we recommend using spatial prioritization software often and employing several measures of connectivity in decision-making.

Natural Community Conservation Plans (NCCPs) represent the most powerful tool in statute for regional and systematic conservation planning for species at risk in California. This study examines the use of species conceptual models (SCMs) and species distribution models (SDMs) in such planning. Eighteen Natural Community Conservation Plans (NCCPs) were analyzed to determine if or how explicit connections were made between both types of models for a covered species and key components of its conservation strategy. Results indicate plans were strong in the use of SDMs, however, each deferred preparing or using SCMs to later management and monitoring phases. A more effective best planning practice for developing a conservation strategy is to explicitly integrate SCMs and SDMs during plan preparation.

To recover a threatened or endangered species, numerous local government jurisdictions are usually involved in habitat mitigation and conservation planning actions for evaluating impacts to habitat. In the USA local governments make official land use decisions. A social-ecological case study of multiple counties is presented tabulating the relative "contribution to recovery" by each county for giant garter snake (GGS; Thamnophis gigas), a federally and state-listed threatened California endemic watersnake species that is reliant on rice agriculture. The entire geographic range of the GGS is examined in relation to multiple county boundaries, recovery unit boundaries, federal habitat conservation plan (HCP) coverage, California natural community conservation plan (NCCP) coverage, and piecemeal mitigation (areas lacking formal conservation plans). Results indicate that of the 22 counties that cover the range of the GGS, nine counties have HCPs that cover the species in 38% of the range and of those nine HCPs six have NCCPs covering 14% of the range. Thus, more than half of the range (62%) mitigates for impacts to the GGS in a project-by-project (piecemeal) manner with no HCP, while 24% of the range has a population jeopardy standard covered by HCPs and 14% has a population recovery standard covered by NCCPs. However, four of the nine recovery units are substantially covered by HCP or NCCP conservation plans (~65-81%), while the remaining five units have far less coverage (~1-36%). Ninety-nine percent of all known GGS occurrences were found in Sutter, Sacramento, Yolo, Colusa, Butte, Merced, Glenn, San Joaquin, Fresno, Solano, and Kern counties (n = 85, 55, 51, 44, 36, 27, 17, 9, 9, 4, 4, respectively). These 11 counties will play an important role toward contributing to recovery of the GGS. In theory, the variation in different conservation standards over a species' range could have significant implications for its ultimate recovery potential.

An enterprise GIS data model was developed for use in public gardens, which includes botanical gardens, arboreta, and zoos. The data model defines the representation of geographical phenomena, the attributes of each feature, and the relationships between them in order to support information management and analysis within public gardens. The data model was developed using a three‐stage process consisting of conceptual, logical, and physical design, each guided by stakeholder workshops and software testing. The data model includes the attributes of features necessary to create collection maps and perform collection analysis, and is designed to link to existing plant and animal records management systems (BG‐BASE and ZIMS) through a common key. The Public Garden Data Model consists of three modules (Base Map, Facilities and Infrastructure, and Basic Plant Records), unified into one comprehensive spatial data model for public gardens, and contains 59 feature classes and tables connected by 49 relationship classes.

Conceptually, the theory and implementation of "map projection" in geographic information system (GIS) technology is difficult to comprehend for most introductory students and novice users. Compounding this difficulty is the concept of a "map projection file" that defines map projection parameters of geo-spatial data. The problem of the "missing projection file" appears ubiquitous for all users, especially in practice where data is widely shared. Another common problem is inadvertent misapplication of the "Define Projection" tool that can result in a GIS dataset with an incorrectly defined map projection file. GIS education should provide more guidance in differentiating the concepts of map projection versus projection files by increasing understanding and minimizing common errors. A novel pedagogical device is introduced in this paper: the seven possible states of GIS data with respect to map projection and definition. The seven possible states are: (1) a projected coordinate system (PCS) that is correctly defined, (2) a PCS that is incorrectly defined, (3) a PCS that is undefined, (4) a geographic coordinate system (GCS) that is correctly defined, (5) a GCS that is incorrectly defined, (6) a GCS that is undefined, and (7) a non-GCS. Recently created automated troubleshooting tools to determine a missing map projection file are discussed.

Urban development occupies over 375,000 ha (6%) of California's Central Valley, and expansion continues to displace natural and agricultural landscapes. The value of urban areas as habitat for native wildlife and the characteristics that determine its value, however, remain little studied. Many Neotropical migrant passerine bird species are declining due to changes in breeding, migratory, and wintering habitats and climatic conditions. During 2010-2013, we evaluated the importance of native valley oak (Quercus lobata) as stopover foraging habitat used by Neotropical migrant birds in urban areas of the Sacramento region in California, USA. Over 3 years, we surveyed spring and late summer-early fall migrant songbirds and measured tree canopy cover within 31 c.0.91 ha transects in Curtis Park, an older residential neighborhood. We detected 607 individuals from 20 migrant species, but four wood warblers comprised the bulk of observations: black-throated gray (Setophaga nigrescens), Wilson's (Cardellina pusilla), orange-crowned (Oreothlypis celata), and yellow warblers (Setophaga petechia). Migrant abundance was closely correlated with valley oak canopy abundance and increased linearly with oak canopy especially during fall migration. Migrants were nearly absent from areas lacking oak canopy. Migrant bird species as a group also foraged in valley oak substantially more often (74%) than would be expected based on its 15% relative canopy cover (chi(2)(1d.f.) = 924, p < 0.0001), as did all species whose selectivity could be tested. These results are important in demonstrating previously undocumented migrant use of urban areas with remnant valley oak canopy and suggest that protecting existing valley oaks and increasing their use in future urban forestry and landscape plantings in the Central Valley could provide substantial habitat benefits for native migratory birds.

This paper presents a comparison of pollutant load estimations for runoff from two geographically distinct residential suburban neighborhoods in northern and southern California. The two neighborhoods represent a single urban land use type: low-density residential in small catchments (<0.3 km2) under differing regional climates and irrigation practices. Pollutant loads of pesticides, nutrients, and drinking water constituents of concern are estimated for both storm and non-storm runoff. From continuous flow monitoring, it was found that a daily cycle of persistent runoff that peaks mid-morning occurs at both sites. These load estimations indicate that many residential neighborhoods in California produce significant non-storm pollutant loads year-round. Results suggest that non-storm flow accounted for 47–69% of total annual runoff and significantly contributed to annual loading rates of most nutrients and pesticides at both sites. At the Southern California site, annual non-storm loads are 1.2–10 times higher than storm loads of all conventional constituents and nutrients with one exception (total suspended solids). At the Northern California site, annual storm loads range from 51 to 76% of total loads for all conventional constituents and nutrients with one exception (total dissolved solids). Non-storm yields of pesticides at the Southern California site range from 1.3–65 times higher than those at the Northern California site. The disparity in estimated pollutant loads between the two sites indicates large potential variation from site-to-site within the state and suggests neighborhoods in drier and milder climates may produce significantly larger non-storm loads due to persistent dry season runoff and year-round pest control.

Environmental legislation in the US (i.e. NEPA) requires defining baseline conditions on current rather than historical ecosystem conditions. For ecosystems with long histories of multiple environmental impacts, this baseline method can subsequently lead to a significantly altered environment; this has been termed a 'sliding baseline'. In river systems, cumulative effects caused by flow regulation, channel revetment and riparian vegetation removal significantly impact floodplain ecosystems by altering channel dynamics and precluding subsequent ecosystem processes, such as primary succession. To quantify these impacts on floodplain development processes, we used a model of river channel meander migration to illustrate the degree to which flow regulation and riprap impact migration rates, independently and synergistically, on the Sacramento River in California, USA. From pre-dam conditions, the cumulative effect of flow regulation alone on channel migration is a reduction by 38%, and 42-44% with four proposed water diversion project scenarios. In terms of depositional area, the proposed water project would reduce channel migration 51-71 ha in 130 years without current riprap in place, and 17-25 ha with riprap. Our results illustrate the utility of a modeling approach for quantifying cumulative impacts. Model-based quantification of environmental impacts allow scientists to separate cumulative and synergistic effects to analytically define mitigation measures. Additionally, by selecting an ecosystem process that is affected by multiple impacts, it is possible to consider process-based mitigation scenarios, such as the removal of riprap, to allow meander migration and create new floodplains and allow for riparian vegetation recruitment.

Historically, typical open channel flood control systems have been designed for a single function: to enhance human safety by preventing flood damage to human landscape infrastructure. This single-purpose objective is increasingly an untenable practice. Because river systems in human-dominated landscapes often play important conservation roles for biota (e.g. endangered species), it is important that flood control planning be integrated with conservation planning principles and goals. 'Regenerative design' seeks to intentionally enable an environment to continually replace ecosystem structures through natural processes, which is a design paradigm that can achieve multiple socio-ecological goals. In river systems, flood control channels need to be multifunctional where feasible, and be designed to accommodate vegetation as well as geomorphic processes, such as meander dynamics. A heuristic analysis of three areas from California's existing but antiquated Sacramento River flood control system (including two bypass channels) was used to illustrate these concepts with a series of expansion scenarios for each channel. Minimum dynamic area was gamed (by expanding the average channel width and adjusting Manning's n roughness coefficients) in the main channel (river miles 84-144) to more than double the existing conveyance, which resulted in nearly quadrupling the roughness coefficient allowing for increased riparian vegetation. The bypass channel widths and roughness coefficients were also gamed to achieve 100- and (alternatively) 200-yr flood protection while providing increased potential for riparian vegetation and flood refugia for terrestrial animal species. These scenarios conceptually illustrate that expanding the flood channel footprint while increasing design roughness coefficients can effectively meet multifunctional objectives. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The common edible fig is a subcanopy tree that has invaded many of the remnant riparian forests of California's Central Valley. Fig is unusual in its ability to invade low-light, low-disturbance, native-plant dominated environments. Dendrochronology combined with regression and spatial analyses allowed us to empirically quantify the expansion rate and spatial pattern of the fig invasion into the native plant community at Caswell Memorial State Park (Ripon, CA) over a 70-year invasion period. Fig uses a combination of short-distance dispersal, which results in constant, linear expansion at source population sites and long-distance dispersal, which eventually leads to high recruitment of satellite populations in ideal environments. Although fig initially experienced a long lag in its invasion rate, at the time of this study, it was expanding at an exponential rate at the landscape scale in Caswell. We identified a number of characteristics intrinsic to the fig population (shade suppression, pollinator presence, highly specialized reproduction, and propagule pressure) as well as extrinsic characteristics of the receiving environment (hydrologic alteration from the construction of a dam, safe sites for juvenile recruitment, and target effects from environmental heterogeneity) that may have influenced the rate and pattern of fig invasion. The Central Valley riparian forests have been reduced to less than 6% of their original area, and invasive fig is a significant threat to the remaining fragments of this important vegetation community. We include suggestions for fig eradication based on knowledge gained in this study.

Reintroduction of native species to unoccupied portions of their historical range is a common management strategy to enhance the future viability of animal populations. This approach has met with mixed success, due to unforeseen impacts caused by human or other factors. Some of these impacts could potentially be mitigated through the use of anticipatory modeling coupled with appropriate management strategies prior to release. As part of an ongoing restoration program, we evaluated a portion of the former range of the tule elk (Cervus elaphus nannodes) in the Central Valley of California for potential reintroduction of a free-ranging herd. We used a new spatially explicit population model (HexSim) to analyze four different elk release scenarios. Each scenario corresponded to a different release location, and the model was used to compare simulated elk movement and population dynamics 25 years into the future. We also used HexSim to identify likely locations of human–elk conflict. Population forecasts after the 25-year period were highest (mean female population size of 169.6 per iteration) and potentially harmful barrier interactions were lowest (mean 8.6 per iteration) at the East Bear Creek site. These results indicate the East Bear Creek site release scenario as the most likely to result in a successful elk reintroduction, producing the most elk and generating the fewest human conflicts. We found HexSim to be a useful tool for this type of reintroduction planning and believe that other reintroduction efforts could benefit from this type of anticipatory modeling.

The yellow‐billed cuckoo is a state‐listed endangered bird in California. The largest population of cuckoos in California is on the meandering portion of the middle Sacramento River. I studied two time periods (1952 and 1987) of a 127‐km study reach of the Sacramento River to document regeneration and spatial shifts in yellow‐billed cuckoo habitat patches due to fluvial geomorphic processes, vegetation recruitment and succession over a 35‐year period. The spatial co‐occurrence of natural riparian vegetation and floodplain age <65 years were used to identify sub‐patches of cottonwood forest, a preferred habitat element, within larger patches of contiguous riparian forest. Only 247 ha (15%) of the 1664 ha of habitat sub‐patches identified in 1952 were coincident with those in 1987. Seventeen (27%) of the 62 sub‐patches delineated for 1987 emerged anew and independently of the 1952 patches; the remaining 83% formed by shifting adjacent to the patches from 1952. Comparing observation data (1987–1990) with modelled patches (1987) indicates that 79% of the modelled sub‐patches correctly predicted cuckoo presence or absence. The commission and omission errors were 7% and 14%, respectively. The goal of sustaining the yellow‐billed cuckoo population will require that river channel management encourage channel meander dynamics and channel cut‐off to maintain natural regeneration of cottonwood and willow pioneer plant communities. The active management of hydrodynamic (flow) and geomorphic processes, including the use of prescription flows and the removal of bank revetment (riprap), will be important tools towards achieving this goal. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Planning for safe passage of wildlife involves understanding the complexities of natural and human landscapes and incorporating connectivity assessments in local and regional planning. The present study describes a novel landscape analysis approach that was used in the context of municipal open space planning and regional land use and transportation planning. The project approach focused on two principles: (1) wildlife movement is not limited to formally managed reserves and corridors, but occurs across a gradient of land uses in the human landscape, and (2) that local and regional planners should be included in the process of identifying habitat connectivity needs and in turn incorporate connectivity in their own planning processes. In the first case, a species-specific combination of landscape disturbance and least-cost modeling was based on the concept that wildlife originate their movement from anywhere within suitable habitat and move in a least-costly direction. This results in a “least cost surface” of possible wildlife movement based on habitat preference and barriers to safe passage. In the second case, planners at two geographic scales – municipal and regional – were informed of landscape connectivity principles and their needs incorporated into the assessment itself. The least cost surface approach allows for the integration of modeled connectivity and disturbance with site-specific municipal planning activities. However, the potential for this type of local planning to be folded into local decision-making processes can be dependent on the interests of individual planners rather than being systematic in nature.

Reintroductions of wildlife populations to their former range in California are often undertaken without systematic, spatially-explicit habitat analyses as part of feasibility studies. This has been true for the tule elk (Cervus elaphus nannodes), a California endemic subspecies brought to the brink of extinction a century ago. We evaluated the Grasslands Ecological Area of Merced County as potential habitat for a future free-ranging herd. The study area was modeled using three variables: cover/forage, habitat diversity, and human impacts. Within 11,650 ha of likely usable habitat, we found two large areas of very high quality habitat (totaling 4,638 ha). These areas contained forage and cover in close proximity, low levels of human disturbance, and a variety of habitats for use by elk. Carrying capacity of these areas was estimated at 180-320 individuals. We suggest that this type of systematic evaluation should be a component of future reintroduction efforts for tule elk and other native species of California wildlife.

This study focused on a spatial and temporal analysis of the active channel and associated floodplain lakes using aerial photographs spanning five decades (1942, 1962, 1985, 1999) over a 140 km long reach of the Sacramento. Planimetric changes were analysed longitudinally and temporally to highlight the spatial structures and their evolution through time. The results underline complex changes and space-time pattern in bank erosion, channel length and active channel width. The bank erosion and also channel lengthening were higher between 1962 and 1985 than in the two periods studied before and after. Active channel width significantly decreased from 1942 to 1999; partly progressively from upstream to downstream with local widening whatever the studied periods. Similarly the floodplain lakes observed before 1942-1962 were significantly different in size and geometry from those which appeared during the most recent period. The creation of lakes is less frequent after the 1940s, with a secondary peak of occurrence during the 1962-1985 period. The interpretation of these changes is complex because of various human pressures acting over different time scales (bank protection, flow diversion, sediment starvation, land-use changes) and various natural influences (flood sequences through out the period, geological setting). The findings are discussed by comparison with previous work, and highlight the important effect of dam impact on peak flow and sediment starvation modifying longitudinally hydraulic conditions within the channel, but also the increase in riprap protection which induced change in bank erosion, channel planimetry and floodplain lake characters (geometry, frequency of renewal). Variation in flood intensities is also observed as having positive effects on the bank erosion pattern. Secondarily, land-use changes also controlled bank erosion intensity. Copyright (C) 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Conservation planning and resulting ecological target identification require selection of both a planning area boundary and temporal baseline or reference condition. We examined the effects that these selections can have on resulting amount and location of identified conservation targets. A gap analysis for California was conducted using five different sets of ecoregion boundaries to identify and compare existing conservation shortfalls in major land cover type representation in protected areas using a threshold of 30 percent per ecoregion per type as the minimum required for future ecological viability. Another gap analysis was run for a single ecoregion using two temporal baselines (current and pre-1900) for the land cover followed by a comparison of identified conservation needs. We found that the boundaries of different ecoregional schemes affected both the total area needed to meet the per ecoregion land cover conservation goals and the spatial location of underprotected land cover types. Choice of temporal baseline also had a significant effect on the establishment of conservation targets for the highly human-impacted Central Valley ecoregion. To meet the given conservation threshold using a historic rather than contemporary baseline, a substantial amount of restoration is required. The results can help identify areas of both conservation needs consensus and those that vary widely based on the chosen planning boundary, as well as aid in the selection of appropriate restoration targets in degraded ecosystems. Because all landscapes are continuous in nature and planning area boundaries are discrete, similar results are likely to be found in analyses conducted in other regions.

Ecological patterns and processes operate at a variety of spatial scales. Those which are regional in nature may not be effectively captured through the combination of conservation plans derived at the local level, where land use planning frequently takes place. Conversely, regional conservation plans may not identify resources important for conservation of intraregional ecological variation. We compare modeled conservation networks derived at regional and local scales from the same area in order to analyze the impact of scale effects on conservation planning. Using the MARXAN reserve selection algorithm and least cost corridor analysis we identified a potential regional conservation network for the Central Valley ecoregion of California, USA, from which we extracted those portions found within five individual counties. We then conducted the same analysis for each of the five counties. An overlay of the results from the two scales shows a general pattern of large differences in the identified networks. Especially noteworthy are the trade-offs and omissions evident at both scales of analysis and the disparateness of the identified corridors that connect core reserves. The results suggest that planning efforts limited to one scale will neglect biodiversity patterns and ecological processes that are important at other scales. An intersection of results from the two scales can potentially be used to prioritize areas for conservation found to be important at several spatial scales.