The dynamics of suspended sediment concentration (SSC) in the Indian Sundarban, in the context of rising sea levels, highlights the importance of analyzing its impact on the functioning of this vital mangrove ecosystem. The present study is, therefore, aimed to identify the spatio-temporal variability of SSC in the Indian Sundarban and relate these variations to various hydro-morphodynamic parameters. The study involved seasonal tide monitoring at multiple stations, in-situ SSC measurements (both surface and depth-wise) to assess station-wise SSC variation and calibrate remote sensing data, as well as the collection of real-time and historical Landsat images. Additionally, indices such as NSMI and NDTI were employed in the analysis. The results (both in-situ and remotesensing based measurements) depicted significant differences in SSC between the pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon seasons, followed by variations between spring and neap tides, as well as between the sea-front and interior areas of the estuary. For instance, the average SSC in the pre-monsoon spring was 0.17 f 0.08 g/ l, rising to 0.28 f 0.11 g/l in the monsoon spring, before dropping sharply to 0.09 f 0.05 g/l in the postmonsoon. This concentration decreased significantly during the neap tide across all seasons. The spatial variability revealed a gradual decrease in SSC from the sea-front estuarine confluence zones towards the interior of the estuarine system. For instance, during the pre-monsoon spring, the average SSC at the Thakuran mouth was around 0.24 f 0.10 g/l, gradually dropping to around 0.18 f 0.08 g/l and 0.15 f 0.08 g/l at distances of 20 km and 35 km inland, respectively. The spatial variations are also influenced by bathymetry, and erosion-accretion patterns of the regime. The study also revealed a long-term decreasing trend in SSC, with the change being more pronounced in the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons than in the monsoon. Overall, this study yields crucial insights into environmental shifts and landform evolution in this distinctive coastal ecosystem.

The Indian Sundarban, renowned for its unique hydro-geomorphic diversity, faces rising threats from sea level rise, necessitating an examination of the spatio-temporal variation of vertical accretion and the role played by mangroves in mitigating these impacts. As such, fifteen transects were chosen across buffer and transition zones of Indian Sundarban, each equipped with 4-6 sedimentation pins, to gauge accretion rates in premonsoon, monsoon, and postmonsoon season during period March 2020 to March 2022, considering diverse hydrogeomorphic attributes. The vertical accretion rate exhibits a curvilinear pattern, ascending from the lower seafront zone towards the middle of the estuarine region, reaching a peak, and subsequently declining towards the upper estuarine zones. Specifically, in the seafront zone, the yearly mean accretion (focusing solely on accretion and excluding subsidence) ranges between 5 and 10 mm/year, while in the middle estuarine region, it increases to an average of 38.1 +/- 9.44 mm/year. However, in the upper zone, the yearly mean accretion decreases slightly to approximately 17.71 +/- 9.54 mm/year. Similar patterns are observed when considering the distance from the riverfront to the interior of the mangrove zones. Seasonal analysis demonstrates that the postmonsoon period exhibits the highest accretion, followed by the premonsoon season, while the monsoon tends to be erosional in nature. Mangrove zonation, and subsequent distribution of root height, root diameter, root density, tree density, tree basal area, inundation frequency, current speed, variation in suspended sediment concentration were identified as influential factors affecting vertical accretion rates. Based on multiple regression analysis, root density, inundation frequency, and tree density demonstrated moderate-positive correlations with vertical accretion, whereas distance from the riverfront, root height, and root diameter displayed negative correlations. This study enhances our understanding of the intricate processes behind vertical accretion in the Sundarban, offering valuable insights for future research and advancing discussions on the broader implications of climate change in coastal regions.

Context National Wetland Parks (NWPs) are a unique form of protected areas in China that have experienced a rapid increase in number from zero to more than 900 over the past two decades.Aims We examine the underlying causes of the boom in NWPs and assess their far-reaching ecological and socio-economic impacts.Methods Utilising GIS information and vector maps, we analysed the spatial distribution of pilot and approved NWPs from 2005 to 2019. Document analysis was employed to explore resource-orientated and legal drivers that have prompted the growth of NWPs.Key results China's NWPs developed in three phases, namely, the exploration phase (2005-2007), the expansion phase (2008-2014) and the normalisation phase (2015-present). The demand for outdoor recreation and improved wetland legislation were the primary facilitators for the growth of NWPs.Conclusions The expansion of NWPs is an important contributor to nature conservation and ecological civilisation, yielding a range of ecological, economic and social benefits.Implications China's experiences in NWPs offers valuable lessons and implications for global nature conservation. Implementing a long-term management mechanism for NWPs is recommended to enhance the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands. The number of National Wetland Parks (NWPs) distributed across China has grown from zero to more than 900 over the past two decades. Is this unlimited growth always beneficial? After analysing the distribution and dynamic trends of China's NWPs, we examined the resource-orientated and legal drivers that prompted the growth and its far-reaching ecological, economic, social outcomes and impacts.

The objective of this research was to investigate the spatio-temporal variations in sedimentary nutrient levels and establish correlations with various hydro-geomorphic and ecological parameters, including the magnitude of tidal-inundation, distance from the river and sea-front, and litter production by different mangrove species within the study area. Twelve transects were selected, each with atleast four sampling points spaced at intervals averaging 100 m, considering various hydro-geomorphic attributes for seasonal sediment sample collection. Eight major soil parameters were measured, including the nutrient parameters TN, TP, TK, OC, OM, NO3– and PO43–, as well as CaCO3. Mangrove litter collections were conducted using litter traps. The total-nitrogen (TN) exhibited distinct patterns: the lowest annual mean was 152.24 ± 7.05 kg/ha in the lower zone, peaking at 209.7 ± 11.8 kg/ha in the middle zone, and decreasing in the upper zone with increasing distance from the sea. Along the ‘mangrove dominated intertidal mudflat’ gradient, TN was lower near the riverfront and higher in the forest interior. Seasonally, TN was highest in postmonsoon and lowest during the monsoon. Other parameters showed similar patterns with varying magnitudes. Litter production varied among species, with Excoecaria agallocha showed highest rate at 41.60 ± 9.58 g/m2/month, followed by Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and Avicennia alba. Litter production was highest in postmonsoon, declining towards the monsoon. ANOVA results revealed intricate relationships between seasons, transects, and the eight dependent variables. The analysis underscored the pronounced spatio-temporal variability in nutrient levels, influenced by a range of hydro-geomorphic factors, and highlights a good correlation with litter productivity of the region.

Sundarban is made up of a mesh of macrotidal estuarine systems that contain the world's largest mangroves, the eco-geomorphic environment of which is heavily influenced by tidal behaviour and flow characteristics. The present study aimed to identify the tidal attributes and document the flow character of Indian Sundarban throughout a fortnightly tidal cycle. As such, seven tide monitoring stations were installed across the Saptamukhi-Hariabhanga and connected river system to monitor tidal water levels. Based on this data, the Institute of Ocean Sciences' (IOS) method was used to extract 17-major tidal harmonic components to study the links between various oceanic and shallow-water tidal constituents that may contribute to tidal asymmetry. A Mike-21-flow model was also run to simulate the tidal flow of the regime. Result shows that the progression and convergence of tidal waves in the funnel-shaped estuarine system causes notable lag between the southern and northern limits (avg. 45 min over a 52 km-long stretch of Thakuran estuary). The harmonic components indicate that semi-diurnal M2, S2; over tide 2MS6; and diurnal O1, K1 are the major forces, shaping the tidal amplitude in this region. The third, fourth, and sixth diurnal constituents represent additional tidal components, although with relatively minor amplitudes. The transition from coastal to headward stations sees a shift in the relative phase from 93.73 degrees to 96.17 degrees, suggesting a flood dominance and minimal dissipation of energy within the system. Mike21FM found that the spring flood-current speed with an average value of 0.42-0.56 m/s is significantly higher than the ebb current of averaging 0.25-0.32 m/s. The nature of neap tidal current speed in the Sundarban region generally mirrors that of the spring condition, although with much less intensity. We assume that since any biweekly hydraulic analysis has not yet been conducted in Sundarban, it may be highly valuable for future studies.

Mapping the changes in the deltaic-coastal zone under changing hydrodynamic conditions is crucial for devel-oping a concise picture of coastal vulnerability. The present study provides a comprehensive idea of changing scenario of rivers in the world's largest delta-Sundarban, using a variety of remotely sensed data and mea-surements, and relating these changes to hydrodynamic conditions. Bathymetric changes have also been esti-mated using Landsat imageries, calibrated with bathymetric chart data. We document a substantial dynamic variation between western and eastern sections of the Sundarban tidal rivers, as well as between the northern and southern parts. As such, banks adjoining the Saptamukhi and Thakuran rivers in the west have accreted by +43.48 km2 and +6.13 km2 respectively, while the net change in the eastern rivers like Matla, Gosaba, and Hariabhanga river systems shows a loss of-51.54 km2, -13.92 km2, and -13.82 km2, respectively, over the last century. Erosion rates have decreased from the southern seafront zone to the northern interior parts due to the low wave exposure, and high tidal range. The accretion rate has increased on the same ground. The depth of these rivers has also changed significantly. For instance, the depth of most sections along the Thakuran river has increased from 5 to 7 m to about 7-10 m during the period 1987-2016. The findings of this study will help researchers all around the world in understanding the centurial dynamics of tidal rivers, and by comparing these to other deltas, it will be possible to emphasize the relative vulnerability of major deltas to current sea level rise.

Urbanization is considered as a core event which accelerate the generation and accumulation of waste materials in a large scale. This waste can be managed by different ways, garbage farming is most environment friendly among them. The aim of the current work is to uncover the present waste management system of Titagarh municipality, waste characterization and valuate this waste management system. Approximately 60–65-ton waste is being deposited in this dumping ground every day, which are the main source of bio-fertilizer of 70.08 acre of land. By using this organic manure, the chemical properties of the agricultural field are so good that three crops can be cultivated in a year. Therefore, the gross economic value of this landfill site, taking into account the financial value of garbage farming and other sources, is approximately 1600000 Indian rupees.

Mapping, analysis, and monitoring of landuse and landcover in micro region is necessary for sustainable land development, planning and management. The present study is, therefore, aimed to identify the spatio-temporal change of LULC in two central administrative C.D. blocks of North 24 Parganas in West Bengal, India during period 1987-2020. To figure out the essence of the transition, the supervised classification along with post-classification change detection using the 'From'-'To' approach was employed. Furthermore, hotspot analysis has been utilized to identify all of the areas that are the most variable in terms of change potentiality. Besides, cellular automata were also introduced to find out the character of urban growth and future trend of LULC change. The results show that between 1987 and 2020, agricultural area and vegetation with settlement decreased by -11.60 % and -4.34 %, respectively, while dense set-tlement increased by +15.69 % due to significant population growth and overcrowding from neighboring countries. The prediction model also supports this argument. So, the very high and uncontrolled growth of urban settlement in the study area, may become a big challenge for the district authority to control the unplanned urban expansion.

Hydroelectric projects have had a considerable impact on the Ajodhya hill in Purulia district since the first pumped storage plant was erected in 2008 on Kistobazar nala in West Bengal, India, with two more projects are in the planning stages. Keeping these facts in mind, the goal of this study is to assess the level of environmental deterioration caused by landuse-landcover change and alteration of local habitat in the Ajodhya between 2000 and 2020. Emphasis was also given on determining the current scenario and trend of soil erosion in order to assess the efficacy of these projects in the near future. Supervised image classification was used to evaluate the extent of forest loss, agricultural-land damage, waterbody expansion, and subsequent ecosystem destruction. The degree of soil erosion was calculated using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation model. Result reveals that 26.12

The solid waste management (SWM) issue become a hot topic since the early 21st century, owing to the massive increase in global human population. This study centered on a most important urban center of Eastern India, the Kolkata Metropolitan Area (KMA) having a total population of nearly 14.72 million with an average per capita waste generation of about 383.89 gr/person/year, necessitating the identification of new landfill areas to handle such a massive waste load. Therefore, the current work tried to explore the most suitable new dumping sites for the KMA, taking into account 4 main (topographical and geomorphological, lithological, socio-economic, and hydrogeological) and 17 sub-parameters from aforementioned four main data groups, as suggested by the Central Pollution Control Board's guidelines. With this Fuzzy-Analytical Hierarchy Process (F-AHP) and weighted linear combination model was used to determine the weightage and ratings of the main and Sub-parameters. Result indicates that 40.59% of the study area is not suitable for dumping site construction, 29.34% is least suitable, 14.34% is moderate suitable and about 9.64% is under highly suitable zone. Furthermore, a site-based verification report reveals that over 15 spots, in different parts of the study area may have a potential for dumping of large volume of urban solid waste. Six of them might be the finest candidates for Kolkata, Howrah, and Chandannagar MC, the three municipal corporations of KMA. As such, considering all the topographical, environmental, social, hydrogeological components, the public sectors and city planners can follow and refer the result of this suitability analysis.

Abstract Introduction  Tinea corporis (TC; ringworm or dermatophytosis) is a superficial skin infection caused by Microsporum , Epidermophyton and Trichophyton genera of dermatophytes. We compared the effects of individualized homeopathic medicines (IHMs) in fifty-millesimal (LM) potencies against placebo in TC. Methods  A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, two parallel arms trial was conducted on 62 individuals suffering from TC at the National Institute of Homoeopathy, India. Participants were randomized in a 1:1 ratio to receive either IHMs in LM potencies or identical-looking placebos for a period of 3 months. The primary outcome measure was the number of participants showing complete disappearance of skin lesions after 3 months. Secondary outcomes were a numeric rating scale (NRS) measuring intensity of itching and the Skindex-29 questionnaire (overall, and three sub-scales – degree of symptoms, psychological functioning, emotional status). All were assessed at baseline and every month, up to 3 months. The intention-to-treat sample was analyzed to detect inter-group differences using two-way repeated measures analysis of variance after adjusting for baseline differences. Results  The primary outcome revealed no improvement in either of the groups ( χ 2  = 0.012, p  = 0.999). Inter-group differences in some of the secondary outcomes favored IHMs against placebo – itching NRS (mean group difference after 3 months: −0.7 (95% confidence interval [CI], −1.1 to −0.4; p  = 0.001); Skindex-29 overall (mean group difference after 3 months: 3.2 [95% CI, −0.6 to 7.0; p  = 0.009]); Skindex-29 degree of symptoms (mean group difference after 3 months: 0.9 [95% CI, −0.2 to 1.9; p  = 0.007]); and Skindex-29 psychological functioning (mean group difference after 3 months: 1.7 [95% CI, 0–3.4; p  = 0.002]). Conclusion  Results were negative on the primary outcome; however, secondary outcomes included some statistically significant results favoring IHMs against placebo after 3 months. Trial registration  CTRI/2019/11/021999; UTN: U1111–1242–0070.

Digha is one of the largest sea resorts in eastern India, facing a long history of erosion and has been engineered extensively since 1970s. It extends for 5.45 km along the Medinipur coast, which can be divided into three sectors viz. New Digha, Old Digha and Gangadharpur based on the beach character. The current study aims to identify the erosion-accretion trend of the coast and link it with the phases of construction of the coastal engineering structures in this zone, understanding the nearshore wave climate, and finally quantify the influence of these structures on the spatio-temporal variability of beach dynamics. Keeping these objectives in mind, DSAS was used to generate data on erosion-accretion regimes of the study area. A number of beach-profiles have been systematically surveyed during 2011-2019. The results show that between 1973 and 1998, the coastline at Old and New Digha retreated by about 200 m and 180 m, respectively, and were later constrained by the sea wall, while Gangadharpur suffered severe erosion (about 350 m) due to the impact of the refracted waves at the abrupt termination of the sea wall after Old Digha. Due to the low chance of energy dissipation , the beach at Old and New Digha has lowered drastically (average 3.50 m and 1.5 m respectively) and has largely moved away from the equilibrium condition. At Gangadharpur, the effect of the groyne in raising the beach elevation is jeopardised by a newly constructed wall in this sector, which has interrupted the process of beach-dune sediment exchange in this area.& nbsp;(c) 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Objective: The feasibility of a definitive trial was tested to evaluate individualized homeopathic medicines (IHMs) for the treatment of vitiligo. Design: This was a double-blind randomized (1:1) placebo-controlled pilot trial conducted at the National Institute Homeopathy, India. Sixty patients with vitiligo were included in the study. Interventions: IHMs and identical-looking placebos at 50-millesimal (LM) potencies. Outcome measures: Feasibility issues and scores from the Vitiligo Area Scoring Index (VASI), Vitiligo-specific Quality-of-life instrument (VitiQoL), and Dermatology Life Quality Index (DLQI) were measured at baseline and after 3 and 6 months. Results: The recruitment and retention rates were satisfactory. Mean reductions in the outcome measures were higher in the IHM group than placebo. Conclusions: Definitive efficacy trials are warranted. Clinical Trials Registry-India: CTRI/2018/10/016160; secondary identifier UTN: U1111-1221-7704.

Background: Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) has a significant impact on the quality of life (QOL). IBSQOL questionnaire is a 34-item valid instrument aimed at measuring QOL in IBS-D (predominant diarrhea) patients. To date, no Bengali version of the questionnaire is available. We aimed to develop so and examine its cross-cultural adaptability considering linguistic equivalence. Methods: IBSQOL Bengali version (IBSQOL-B) was produced by forward-backward translations. A cross-sectional study was conducted through consecutive sampling at Mahesh Bhattacharyya Homoeopathic Medical College and Hospital, Howrah, and National Institute of Homoeopathy, Kolkata. A mixed method study was conducted involving 350 patients suffering from IBS-D. The study consisted of standardized translation of the IBSQOL questionnaire into Bengali, followed by formal validation. Psychometric analysis was run to examine its factor structure, validity, and reliability. Results: The overall internal consistency was excellent (Cronbach's α and intraclass correlation coefficient 0.965; 95% confidence interval 0.960–0.970). Test-retest reliability (P > 0.05) was satisfactory. The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO = 0.928) and Bartlett's test of sphericity (Chi-square 4284.193, P < 0.001) both suggested sample adequacy. In factor analysis, all the items loaded above the prespecified value of 0.4 and identified five components (psychological impact, limitation of daily activities, displeasure, limitation of sexual activity, and over concern) and one single isolated item; explaining 67.1% of the variation. The goodness-of-fit in CFA model was acceptable (Chi-square: 1238.436, P < 0.001; Comparative Fit Index = 0.819, Tucker–Lewis Index = 0.803, Root Mean Square Error of Approximation = 0.094, and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual = 0.130). Conclusions: The developed IBSQOL-B contains 34 items that are constructed within 5-component and a single isolated item model. It is a reasonably valid and reliable tool, enabled to measure the impact of IBS-D in QOL in Bengalee patients.

Background: There is supreme importance for teaching-learning among Interns regarding their perception on Doctor-Patient relationship based on Doctor-Patient communication. Objectives: To find out the perception of Interns regarding Doctor-Patient Communication. Methods: A hospital-based prospective open-label observational cross-sectional study was conducted among interns to assess the perception and correlates based on distinguished questions on Doctor-Patient Communication at the emergency, out-patient and in-patient departments, at a medical college and hospital in eastern India during March to May 2021. Results: The perception of the Interns regarding the reported expectation of patients was positive, while Interns' self-satisfaction after independently managing the patients could assess the strength of mutual communication. On the Interns' perception regarding expectation of patients, all the responses were in favour of them except 'time constraints' and 'general advice'; all were statistically highly significant. On the Interns' reported satisfaction after independently dealing with the patients, majority of responses favoured Intern's positive approaches of calm hearing, addressing complaints and caring patient's view; yet, private matters and other issues of the patients were not satisfactorily addressed; these responses were highly significant. On critical analysis, the Interns were satisfied while communicating with the patients amid increased stress, workload and patient load; Interns were content on patients' compliance which was statistically significant. Conclusions: This study revealed the most updated observation on interns' perception regarding Doctor-Patient communication on a positive note and their satisfaction.

Tropical cyclones have become more frequent as a result of climate change and the associated temperature rise in the ocean surface, wreaking havoc on both natural and man-made elements. The most recent storm, Yaas, has had a wide-spread impact on coastal areas, with high-intensity wind, rainfall, and, most significantly, inundation in Odisha and West Bengal coastal region. Yaas formed over east central Bay of Bengal as a depression and gradually intensified to VSCS and finally made landfall near Balasore of Odisha coast, with a wind speed of 130–140 km/h. on 26th May, 2021. The present study is, therefore, aimed to characterize the cyclone Yaas and to investigate the expansion of cyclonic inundation in different sector of coastal West Bengal. Several space-borne data sets were employed in this study, including GPM data to illustrate precipitation variability, Sentinel-1 images for inundation mapping, and Sentinel-2 data to determine MNDWI for both pre- and post-cyclonic periods. The results show that during this cyclonic period, hundreds of km2 of land in West Bengal, including blocks of South 24 parganas, East Medinipur and North 24 parganas such as Sagar (37.10 km2), Namkhana (78.12 km2), Pathar Pratima (58.74 km2), Ramnagar I (15.24 km2) and II (19.62 km2), Khejuri (22.27 km2), and other blocks were inundated by cyclonic surge and about a total of 1195 mm of rainfall. Eventually, people have lost their homes, properties have damaged, and many agricultural fields have become barren by salt water accumulation.

The present study was carried out to deliver an overview of the hazard profile and identify the hazard hotspots of the West Bengal coast. Indian coasts are under threat and vulnerable due to multiple stresses like sea-level rise, erosion, frequent extreme events, saltwater encroachment, and human intervention The newly developed Coastal Hazard Wheel (CHW) methodology explores the vulnerability scenario of any eco-system disruption associated with the gradual inundation; saltwater intrusion, erosion, and flooding of any coastal zone either at a local or regional scale. This study examines coastal vulnerability factors and their assessment of 185 km coast of West Bengal, India, using both CHW data and data of the primary survey. The result shows that the entire coast is high to very highly vulnerable in gradual inundation, saltwater intrusion, erosion, and coastal flooding. Islands of Sundarban and main lands of East Midnapur district facing the coast directly experienced by wave action are always prone to very high vulnerability. On the other hand, areas that are protected from open fetch of the ocean are less vulnerable to coastal hazards. Combined five hazard profiles (ecosystem disruption, gradual inundation, saltwater intrusion, erosion, and flooding) explore that coastal flooding and saltwater intrusion are in most vulnerable indicating a severe effect on the entire coast. Sea level rise induced gradual inundation can damage major parts of the coast. Erosion produces a very high to moderate impact (63%–37%).

Cancer arising out of diets and protective role of diet from cancers to preserve health and nutritional status is a debate in the healthcare arena. In search of perennial conflict on diet and cancer, researchers of this review emphasized conceptual and contextual details from commonly used dietary items and practices for optimum healthcare model. Twenty-four research studies were identified from 91 potentially relevant data bases and published literatures to collate an updated idea of diet and cancer. Studies were selected on, first; all emerging nutritional plans and related reports on cancer among published literature were sketchily searched. Second, “diet” and 'cancer control was also sourced from different journals, conference proceedings, and different media reports, Third, published reports from apex bodies of global importance like different professional national and international organizations were given due weightage. We have assembled diversity of opinion on prevention and control of cancer in different academic sources. Although there is no paucity of quantitative and qualitative data on diet and cancer, there is dearth of scientific and valid suggestions from scholars on this sensitive issue. In a holistic approach, we require more translational research about diet and cancer with definitive and conclusive evidences for day-to-day application in medical practice for the improvement in clinical approach of this complex debatable paradigm.

The identification of a groundwater contamination risk zone has been found to be a useful approach for managing ground water resources. As such, despite the fact that North 24 Parganas in West Bengal has been in the spotlight since the mid-2000s due to significant groundwater contamination, no work has been done on groundwater vulnerability zonation mapping. The current study is, therefore, aimed to identify the major susceptible zones of aquifer contamination in various parts of the North 24 Parganas district using the DRASTIC and certain improved version of DRASTIC techniques, as well as eight hydro-geological parameters. A sensitivity analysis was also carried out in order to determine the most sensitive parameter for ground water vulnerability. Furthermore, a total of 64 ground water samples were collected across the district, and the water quality was compared to the DRASTIC results to determine their accuracy. The results from four DRASTIC models show that about 14.20% of the study area is covered by low vulnerable zone, 24.28% by moderately high, 37.67% by high, and about 20.45% of the area is under very highly vulnerable zone. Despite the inclusion of four models in this study, a comparison of the four models shows that the modified DRASTIC AHP is the most suited and reliable for evaluating groundwater susceptibility, with an accuracy level of 87.50 percent. Consequently, the ideas and vulnerability zone maps might provide a scientific foundation for long-term planning and management and groundwater conservation in the North 24 Parganas and peripheral zones.

There is abundant literature on domestic safe water supply and hygienic sanitation. Yet, there is a paucity of research studies on adequate supply of safe drinking water and toilet facilities in places of population movement and congregation in India. This study stresses on the importance of availability of safe water and sanitation facilities in all the places of human congregation and movement in India. 49 research studies were identified from 169 potentially relevant publications. Studies were selected: first, all protocols of water and toilet facilities among published literature were meticulously searched. Second, information sources on sanitation facilities in public life, viz., railways, roadways, waterways, market places and shopping complexes, schools, and other higher educational institutions, fairs and festivals, entertainment establishments, healthcare facilities, were explored from publications of various resources of different levels. Third, published reports from apex bodies of national and international importance like Indian Council of Medical Research, World Health Organization (WHO), UNICEF, USAID, etc. were given due weightage. Of late, the concept of cleanliness and making communities free from open defecation are in limelight as the Government of India has taken up Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM); even then, contextual gaps remain. This is the cause for concern as both safe water supply and basic sanitation are directly linked to health promotion of the community. Further, this research group have noted that due importance has not been integrated in the planning of SBM regarding availability of safe water and scientific sanitation facilities in all the places of human movement and congregation. Hence, there is more need for creating awareness among general population as well as stakeholders regarding this aspect of cleanliness. It is noted that despite considerable improvement in safe water and sanitation facilities in domestic life, there is considerable population left, who are still lacking access to these facilities in public space.