Old-growth trees with hollow cavities are critical resources for roosting and are required year-round for southeastern myotis (Myotis austroriparius) and Rafinesque’s big-eared bats (Corynorhinus rafinesquii). Although the summer roosting ecology of these species has been evaluated, little is known about their fall and winter roosting habits. Here, we characterized their roost selection at three scales (plot, tree, and cavity) in fall and winter in the Cache River National Wildlife Refuge, Arkansas, USA. In October-December of 2016 and 2017, we radio-tracked 14 southeastern myotis and 19 Rafinesque’s big-eared bats to 42 and 33 roost trees, respectively. Southeastern myotis selected trees with large internal volume and high cavity openings. By contrast, Rafinesque’s big-eared bats selected water tupelos (Nyssa aquatica) with cavities of large internal volume. The microclimate of roost and random trees did not differ in temperature but roosts were less thermally buffered than random cavities. Overall, selection for high cavities is likely driven by flood evasion, whereas less thermally buffered cavities may allow bats to rapidly sense a change in external temperatures that are suitable for winter foraging. Our results highlight the importance of characterizing the ecology of sympatric species across all seasons for a holistic, thus more appropriate, management approach. Habitat management should maintain water tupelos in cypress-gum swamps and a diverse assortment of other tree species in adjacent hardwood floodplain forests, all of which should offer high and large cavities for bats to use as year-round roosts.

Understanding microhabitat use is needed to make sound conservation decisions for at-risk, patchy-habitat specialists, such as rock-habitat specialists. Rock habitats offer unique microclimatic refugia for reptiles and mammals. Eastern small-footed bats ( Myotis leibii (Audubon and Bachman, 1842)) use rock roosts during the summer, but data on these summer roosts are lacking for this species classified as (critically) imperiled in several US states and Canadian provinces and globally endangered. Our goal was to characterize the structure and microclimate of Myotis leibii roosts at the southwestern periphery of their range. We predicted that Myotis leibii roost temperatures would be warmer and less variable than ambient temperatures and that solitary bats would use horizontal roosts cooler at night, whereas maternity group roosts would be vertical and warmer at night. During summers of 2019 and 2020, we recorded physical (e.g., width) and temperature attributes of 58 Myotis leibii roosts at 16 sites in the Ouachita Mountains. Crevice roosts of Myotis leibii had narrow dimensions like elsewhere in their range and roost temperatures (measured with iButtons) were warmer and more variable than ambient temperatures. Group roosts were larger and had more stable temperatures than solitary roosts. These findings may be useful for assessing population threats, monitoring roost suitability, identifying roost-rich areas that need protection, and even planning artificial roost structures where natural roosts are limited.

Hibernacula used for overwintering by federally endangered Myotis sodalis (Indiana Bat) in Arkansas are well documented and biennially monitored, but little is known about this population's migration paths and summer habitat. Revealing spring migratory behaviors and maternity colony locations of female Indiana Bats informs conservation and management efforts and contributes to our understanding of the species across its range. Radio telemetry has been used to document the behaviors of many bat species and, recently, aerial-based tracking methods have increased our understanding of the migratory habits of female Indiana Bats. During the spring migration periods of 2018-2021, we used aerial-and ground-based telemetry methods to follow female Indiana Bats as they commenced migration from Arkansas caves. Bats migrated north into Missouri, east and south across Arkansas, and southwest into Oklahoma. We located and confirmed a previously unknown maternity colony and documented a southerly range expansion for the species in Arkansas. We also tracked an individual bat to Oklahoma, representing the first confirmed summer use by female Indiana Bats in Oklahoma. Bats used 9 different tree species that we categorized as staging, migration, layover, or arrival roosts. The results of this study provide valuable regional information for the southwestern periphery of the species' range and facilitates conservation and management decisions made by natural resource agencies across the state of Arkansas.

Small details of natural history often go undocumented to science if those details are not parts of larger studies. However, knowledge of small details can provide insights that lead to interesting questions about ecological relationships or environmental change. We have compiled recent important observations of natural history of vertebrates, including several distributional and size records of fishes, atypical carapace shape in a common snapping turtle, an unusual support structure for a bird nest, healed damage to a broken jaw of a young deer, and numerous distributional records of bats.

Although it is known that southern flying squirrels (Glaticomys volans) nest in larger groups to offset the energetic costs of low temper:mires. the influence of other variables on aggregation size remains relatively unknown. Therefore, the influence of environmental variables and individual characteristics of G. volans on nest box aggregation size was studied from 1992-1998 at the Savannah River Site in South Carolina. Over the study period, 5859 occupied boxes were observed, representing 11,238 captures and 2671 unique individuals. The majority of occupied boxes (60.3%) contained solitary individuals, while 26.1% contained aggregations (>= 2 individuals) of adult and/or subadult individuals and 13.6% contained litters. Although ambient temperature is widely believed to be the most important variable influencing aggregation size of G. volans, the final model explaining nest aggregation size for G. volans included not only minimum daily ambient temperature, but also Julian date and individual G. volans characteristics of sex, age, and reproductive status. Minimum ambient temperature was inversely related to aggregation size, with larger aggregation sizes associated with winter months, although aggregation size sharply increased between the months of Aug.- Sept. The retention of Julian date in the final model, in addition to minimum ambient temperature, indicates that behavioral shifts due to seasonal changes, independent of temperature, should be considered. Nestlings were associated with larger aggregation sizes, as were inactive and lactating females and inactive males. However, sex alone did not significantly contribute to the final model. This study demonstrates that in addition to temperature, there are a suite of predictors of nest aggregation size for G. volans that should be considered when evaluating nest box occupancy for this species.

The Nepal-India transboundary region hosts one of Asia's most complex large mammal assemblages, including a small (but growing) population of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). These elephants occur in four widespread and geographically disjunct subpopulations, and some of them undergo seasonal transboundary movements. We conducted a broad-scale evaluation of the amount and quality of elephant habitat available in the region and of functional landscape connectivity between and within subpopulations using Maxent, circuit theory, and least -cost path analysis. Habitat suitability was highly influenced by abiotic geographical factors (altitude and precipitation) and less by ecological factors (habitat heterogeneity, plant productivity) and human disturbance (distance to settlements). The region had a relatively small amount of high and optimal suitability habitat (12.6% out of 93,700 km(2)) but all subpopulations seem to be far from carrying capacity, suggesting ample potential for further population growth. Landscape connectivity was higher between and within the west and far-west sub-populations, which should be considered a single subpopulation. The central and east subpopulations, however, had low to very low between-subpopulation connectivity. Conservation priorities include maintaining the current connectivity in the west subpopulation and across the border in the east, and protecting high-quality habitats in eastern Nepal. Restoring connectivity between the central and other subpopulations is possible if the number of elephants continues growing, and it should be a long-term conservation aspiration. Maintaining and enhancing landscape connectivity in this region requires transboundary cooperation and coordination between Nepali and Indian authorities. If successful, it will bring considerable benefits for the conservation of elephants and other wildlife.

Analysis of volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions using electronic-nose (e-nose) devices has shown promise for early detection of white-nose syndrome (WNS) in bats. Tricolored bats, Perimyotis subflavus, from three separate sampling groups defined by environmental conditions, levels of physical activity, and WNS-disease status were captured temporarily for collection of VOC emissions to determine relationships between these combinations of factors and physiological states, Pseudogymnoascus destructans (Pd)-infection status, and metabolic conditions. Physiologically active (non-torpid) healthy individuals were captured outside of caves in Arkansas and Louisiana. In addition, healthy and WNS-diseased torpid bats were sampled within caves in Arkansas. Whole-body VOC emissions from bats were collected using portable air-collection and sampling-chamber devices in tandem. Electronic aroma-detection data using three-dimensional Principal Component Analysis provided strong evidence that the three groups of bats had significantly different e-nose aroma signatures, indicative of different VOC profiles. This was confirmed by differences in peak numbers, peak areas, and tentative chemical identities indicated by chromatograms from dual-column GC-analyses. The numbers and quantities of VOCs present in whole-body emissions from physiologically active healthy field bats were significantly greater than those of torpid healthy and diseased cave bats. Specific VOCs were identified as chemical biomarkers of healthy and diseased states, environmental conditions (outside and inside of caves), and levels of physiological activity. These results suggest that GC/E-nose dual-technologies based on VOC-detection and analyses of physiological states, provide noninvasive alternative means for early assessments of Pd-infection, WNS-disease status, and other physiological states.

Myotis leibii (Eastern Small-footed Bat) is a rare species in eastern North America that is threatened by habitat loss and white-nose syndrome. Although rare, this species cannot be adequately evaluated for listing on the Endangered Species Act because of data deficiencies, including about its distribution and roost habitat. Our objectives were to document the distribution of Eastern Small-footed Bats and determine landscape and local characteristics that influence their probability of presence in the mountains of west-central Arkansas. Using acoustic monitoring, visual searches of rock formations, and mist-netting, we found that presence of Eastern Small-footed Bats was more likely in regions with talus slopes and nearby forest cover. These features may benefit the species by providing abundant options for roost switching, unique thermal properties, and short distances to foraging habitat.

Mature trees with hollow cavities are an important resource as roost sites for Rafinesque’s big-eared bats (Corynorhinus rafinesquii) and Southeastern myotis (Myotis austroriparius). Southern populations of these bats typically remain active in the winter (ca. November-March) but seasonal flooding in bottomland forests may prevent them from exiting their roosts. Our objective was to determine if and how seasonal flooding affects activity and roost-switching patterns of these species in Cache River National Wildlife Refuge, Arkansas. In October-December of 2016 and 2017, we radio-tracked 21 Rafinesque’s big-eared bats and 17 Southeastern myotis to 33 and 42 confirmed roost trees, respectively. Tree species, cavity type (e.g., basal cavity), and GPS coordinates were recorded for each confirmed roost tree. Additionally, bat activity, temperature, and water level were monitored using acoustic devices, iButton data loggers, and gauges, respectively. Although both species remained active, some of their roosting habits changed in response to decreasing temperature (from ca. 30 ℃ to −6 ℃ at sunset) rather than flooding. Notably, Southeastern myotis used mainly water tupelo in the fall (86 %, n = 14 trees), but roosted in varied hardwood species located in adjacent floodplain forests in the winter. With adverse weather and higher water levels, behavioral changes exhibited by these species may coincide with changing priorities from foraging to avoiding seasonally rising flood waters, maintaining homeostatic balance, or breeding and social interaction. In conclusion, when creating or revising their management plans, managers will need to consider the variety of roosts that these species require at different times of the year.

The development of new C-320 electronic-nose (e-nose) methods for pre-symptomatic detection of White-Nose Syndrome (WNS) in bats has required efficacy studies of instrument capabilities to discriminate between major sources of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) derived from clinical samples. In this phase-2 study, we further tested this e-nose for capabilities to distinguish between bat species based on differences in whole-body VOC emissions. Live healthy individuals of nine bat species were temporarily captured outside of caves in Arkansas and Louisiana. VOC emissions from bats were collected using newly developed portable air collection and sampling-chamber devices in tandem. Sensor-array output responses to bat VOC emissions were compared to those of 22 pure VOC analytical standards from five chemical classes. Distinct smellprint signatures were produced from e-nose analyses of VOC metabolites derived from individual bat species. Smellprint patterns were analyzed using 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to produce aroma map plots showing effective discrimination between bat species with high statistical significance. These results demonstrate potential instrument efficacy for distinguishing between species-specific, bat-derived VOC metabolite emissions as major components of clinical samples collected from bats in caves for disease detection prior to symptom development. This study provided additional information required to fully test the efficacy of a portable e-nose instrument for diagnostic applications in subsequent phase-3 testing of noninvasive, early WNS disease detection in intra-cave hibernating bats.

Processes associated with recovery of survivors are understudied components of wildlife infectious diseases. White-nose syndrome (WNS) in bats provides an opportunity to study recovery of disease survivors, understand implications of recovery for individual energetics, and assess the role of survivors in pathogen transmission. We documented temporal patterns of recovery from WNS in little brown bats (Myotis lucifugus) following hibernation to test the hypotheses that: (1) recovery of wing structure from WNS matches a rapid time scale (i.e. approximately 30 days) suggested by data from free-ranging bats; (2) torpor expression plays a role in recovery; (3) wing physiological function returns to normal alongside structural recovery; and (4) pathogen loads decline quickly during recovery. We collected naturally infected bats at the end of hibernation, brought them into captivity, and quantified recovery over 40 days by monitoring body mass, wing damage, thermoregulation, histopathology of wing biopsies, skin surface lipids and fungal load. Most metrics returned to normal within 30 days, although wing damage was still detectable at the end of the study. Torpor expression declined overall throughout the study, but bats expressed relatively shallow torpor bouts-with a plateau in minimum skin temperature-during intensive healing between approximately days 8 and 15. Pathogen loads were nearly undetectable after the first week of the study, but some bats were still detectably infected at day 40. Our results suggest that healing bats face a severe energetic imbalance during early recovery from direct costs of healing and reduced foraging efficiency. Management of WNS should not rely solely on actions during winter, but should also aim to support energy balance of recovering bats during spring and summer.

Habitat degradation has caused a significant threat to wildlife, particularly to megafauna including the Asian elephant that has a large home range. Recolonization of Asian elephants in 1994 in and around Bardia National Park (BNP) has provided a unique study setting to address habitat change over two decades (1990–2013). Elephant presence data in 2013 was modeled using Ecological Niche Factor Analysis (ENFA), which identified the influential ecogeographical variables for elephant habitat. These variables were further used in a regression model to determine habitat suitability for 1990. We found that elephant suitable habitat has been lost between pre-recolonization (1990) and the year 2013 in and around BNP. Unsuitable elephant habitat increased overall by 22% in Bardia District and 20% inside BNP. Central to elephant habitat loss has been a large human population growth, re-forestation efforts with an increase in sal forests, and elephant alteration of vegetation by grazing. Available suitable habitat for elephants in and around BNP should be conserved and managed to prevent further degradation for the maintenance of the elephant population, which will help mitigate human-elephant conflict in the region.

Myotis grisescens (Gray Bat) and Myotis austroriparius (Southeastern Bat) generally do not utilize similar habitats; however, in areas of range overlap where they both may be captured foraging in riparian areas or observed roosting in caves, it may be difficult to discriminate between them due to contradictory information found in mammal identification guides. In order to find characteristics that can reliably be used to identify these species, we examined museum specimens and live-captured individuals to obtain data on length of toe hairs, point of attachment of the plagiopatagium to the foot or ankle, forearm length, and the presence or absence of notches on the claws of feet and thumbs. The presence or absence of a notch in the claws and forearm length were found to be the most objective methods of identifying these species.

North American bats are experiencing declines in part due to anthropogenic impacts resulting in habitat loss and disturbance. In eastern deciduous forests, bats rely on forest resources for all or part of the year. Therefore, to promote conservation of bats, it is essential to determine whether current forest management techniques are compatible with habitat use by bats. We evaluated the relative effect of landscape characteristics, including forest management variables, on sex-specific foraging habitat of an insectivorous forest-dwelling bat species, the evening bat (Nycticeius humeralis), and predicted areas of suitable habitat for N. humeralis. A total of 18 variables were assessed using a maximum-entropy (Maxent) machine-learning approach: eight land use-land cover classes, three stand types, two topography measures, normalized difference vegetation index, and four forest management variables. Females showed the highest probability of presence closer to stands treated with prescribed fire, whereas males showed the highest probability of presence closer to reforested stands. In general, males exhibited more flexibility than females in their habitat selection. The Maxent model further indicated that habitat associated with suitability of > 70% was similar to 4 times larger for males than females, and predicted an additional area of suitable foraging habitat where no presence locations had been recorded. Our modeling approach may be suitable for other researchers to derive models appropriate for a wide range of bat species.

Asian elephants are isolated in fragmented habitat patches in and around Bardia National Park (BNP), Nepal. To describe habitat use patterns and ecogeographical variables (EGVs) that determine an elephant's niche in BNP, we used a General Niche-Environment System Factor Analysis (GNESFA) modeling framework. Novel to our study was the comparison of niche requirements between core (residential) and corridor (travel corridor) areas to elucidate site-specific preferences of Asian elephants in BNP. A total of 13 EGVs (four topographic variables, six land covers, heterogeneity index and two anthropogenic variables) were examined. We implemented a ‘bias file’ approach to address potential sampling bias in the transect survey methods for presence records. Our study illustrated that, regardless of study area, elephants' habitat use was positively influenced by presence of grasslands, mixed forest, and landscape heterogeneity, whereas use was restricted by the topographic variables of slope and elevation. Results also demonstrated different habitat preferences between elephants in the core and corridor, which may be attributed to differences in potential dangers posed in these areas; in the core, elephant habitat preference was mainly associated with food resources such as grassland or mixed forest, whereas in the corridor, where elephants are more likely to encounter human conflict, the anthropogenic factor of distance to human settlements contributed the most in predicting elephant presence. Correlations among significant factors from the three methods (FANTER, ENFA, and MADIFA) demonstrated the consistent and reliable results of these approaches. While these methods complemented each other by providing different points of view, FANTER was especially useful when bimodal niches were analyzed. We suggest a detailed conservation plan for the small populations of elephants in BNP and surrounding areas, while considering the protection of travel routes from human activities in the corridor habitats, and lastly, maintaining grasslands and waterholes in core habitats.

ABSTRACTGray bats (Myotis grisescens) were listed as endangered in 1976 because of population declines resulting from cave disturbance. The Gray Bat Recovery Plan identified the need to understand habitat use by this species. Yet, this need has never been adequately addressed, partly because gray bats are a highly mobile species with large home ranges, making ground‐based tracking methods problematic. The objective of this study was to gather information on the foraging behavior of gray bats using aerial telemetry. We radio‐tracked 112 reproductive female gray bats from 5 maternity colonies in Arkansas from a fixed‐winged aircraft, in June–July of 2014 and 2015. We used fixed‐kernel density to estimate the home range used by each colony and each individual. We performed a compositional analysis to determine land cover types selected by gray bats. Aerial telemetry was successful with ≥15 independent locations gathered for 42 individuals and an error of approximately 400 m. Mean 95% individual home range was larger in 2014 (362.2 ± 24.9 [SE] km2) than in 2015 (57.9 ± 8.6 km2). Female gray bats traveled and foraged over water proportionally more than expected based on availability. Our results show that aerial telemetry is suitable to track bat movements, and given its large home range size, management strategies for gray bats should extend beyond protecting roost sites to include waterways and riparian areas. © 2017 The Wildlife Society.

Human-elephant Conflict (HEC) is a significant problem in Nepal, with approximately two-thirds of households being impacted by elephants (Elephas maximus), particularly during the winter. In addition to elephant casualties, more than 10% of the households surveyed have had human casualties (injury or death) during the past 5 years. This study evaluates the economic viability of elephant conservation in Nepal within the context of current and proposed HEC mitigation scenarios. Face-to-face interviews were carried out using a structured questionnaire to elicit the residents’ willingness to pay (WTP) for elephant conservation and HEC mitigation programs using seemingly unrelated regression (SUR). Residents’ WTP was found to be positively related to income and education, and negatively related to damage-related programs. Local stakeholders were willing to pay about 42% more to programs that were economically transparent and improved upon existing management. Residents’ WTP were also greater if they have had previous HEC-related injuries or deaths.

Human-elephant Conflict (HEC) is a significant problem in Nepal, with approximately two-thirds of households being impacted by elephants (Elephas maximus), particularly during the winter. In addition to elephant casualties, more than 10% of the households surveyed have had human casualties (injury or death) during the past 5 years. This study evaluates the economic viability of elephant conservation in Nepal within the context of current and proposed HEC mitigation scenarios. Face-to-face interviews were carried out using a structured questionnaire to elicit the residents’ willingness to pay (WTP) for elephant onservation illingness to pay uman-elephant conflict

Asian elephants Elephas maximus are an endangered species and human—elephant conflict (HEC) is the major threat to their survival. HEC causes crop and property loss and occasionally results in the death of both humans and elephants in Nepal. Elephants are responsible for more than 40% of the human—wildlife conflict, 70% of the wildlife‐caused human casualties, and a 25% loss in crop production in Nepal. Identification of the factors associated with elephant invasion can help mitigate conflict by allowing residents and representatives to address those factors. This study used face‐to‐face interviews in 1182 households in villages affected by elephants in southern Nepal using a structured questionnaire to understand how land‐use practices are related to HEC regionally. Almost all (99%) of the surveyed houses had some damage from elephants within the past five years. A stepwise binary logistic regression showed that practices such as the growing of traditional crops (rice and large maize fields), maintaining bananas, and home alcohol production increase the chances of elephant attacks. Our data also revealed that HEC is most intense in winter months, when rice is harvested. People residing near protected areas had positive attitudes towards elephants, as they received economic benefits from ecotourism and improved mitigation practices such as electric fences. Changing some land‐use practices could reduce HEC in the region. Therefore, alternative crops should be explored to reduce HEC in southern Nepal. Other management recommendations include moving fruit trees away from homes or fencing community orchards. Although home alcohol production is illegal in Nepal, those engaging in the practice should not ferment alcohol in their homes. Finally, growing bamboo on the edge of settlements would engage elephants and allow for a response to repel them before severe crop or house damage occurs.

Sexual segregation is common in polygynous mammals, particularly in wild ungulates, but is less known in bats of North America. Yet, the declining bat populations caused by white-nose syndrome, wind energy facilities, and habitat loss throughout eastern North America require habitat management, which may be sex specific. We thus determined sex-specific roosting and foraging habits of evening bats (Nycticeius humeralis) in north-central Arkansas. During the summers of 2013 and 2014, we equipped 70 individuals with radiotransmitters to track their foraging movements and identify their roosts that we characterized with 3 tree-level and 7 plot-level variables. We found that evening bat males and females segregate spatially with females foraging over a larger area than males. Females' roosts were also higher in elevation. Although the roost itself had similar characteristics between sexes, its surrounding habitat was characterized by less canopy cover and a smaller basal area for females. Our results support sex-specific habits and sexual segregation in a forest-dwelling bat, which highlights the importance of sex-specific studies to inform management decisions that would benefit both sexes, including females for which parental investment is higher.